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Outline of 

American 
Government 



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,i£ 




LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 



Chap. ._. Copyright No. 

Shelf-JK-2-' 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



AN OUTLINE 



OF 

AMERICAN GOVERNMENT 

* FOR USE IN 

CITY AND COUNTRY SCHOOLS 

IN CONNECTION WITH 

THE GILL SCHOOL CITY 

AND OTHER ORGANIZATIONS FOR SELF-GOVERNMENT 

BY 

DELOS F. WILCOX, Ph.D. and WILSON L. GILL, LL.B. 

ISSUED BY 

THE PATRIOTIC LEAGUE 

ORGANIZED TO PROCLAIM THE NECES- 
SITY FOR SYSTEMATIC INSTRUCTION IN CITIZEN- 
SHIP IN THE SCHOOLS AND OUT OF THEM; TO CULTIVATE 
THE KNOWLEDGE OF AMERICAN PRINCIPLES, LAWS, HISTORY AND 

PROGRESS, AND TO INSTIL AMERICAN IDEAS INTO THE . 

MINDS AND HEARTS OF AMERICANS, NATIVE AND 
ADOPTED, OF BOTH SEXES AND ALL AGES, 
SECTS AND PARTIES 




NEW YORK 
THE PATRIOTIC LEAGUE 
I8 99 



; 4437 

«.eCT261BIK- „ 0UR C0UNTRY „ SERIES JK^ 1 

%^g^. f ;^ ro.tia.DBV yj^ 



PUBLISHD BY 

THE PATRIOTIC LEAGUE 



THE LITTLE CITIZEN, also called " THE YOUNG CITIZEN," by Charles F. 
Dole, is in the form of questions and answers, for the same purpose as the 
"Citizen's Catechism " but written especially for young children. Its simplici- 
ty renders it no less attractive to children of the larger growth. Cloth, 35 cents. 

THE CITIZEN'S CATECHISM by Charles F. Dole, revised by many eminent social 
and political scientists, is designed to present in compact simple form the principle 
ideas of citizenship. State and City School Superintendents in every part of the 
country have written commendations of this book, and the opinion has been ex- 
pressed by several of them that ability to answer its questions intelligently should 
be a requisite to naturalization of foreigners. It has been adopted for use in the 
public schools of New York, Philadelphia, New Haven and other places. 

Paper, 10 cts., cloth, 35 cts. 

TALKS ON CITIZENSHIP, by Charles F. Dole follows the arrangement of topics in 
the " Citizen's Catechism." The two books can be used to advantage together or 
separately. Cloth, 50 cts. 

THE AMERICAN PATRIOT, by Charles F. Dole, discusses in the most simple and' 
charming way the principles and right practices of citizenship. Cloth, 50 cts. 

OUTLINE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT, for teachers and pupils of high schools 
and lower grades, prepared especially for schools that adopt the Gill School City 
government, by Delos F. Wilcox, Ph.D. and Wilson L. Gill, LL.B. Cloth, 50 cts. 

MUNICIPAL AFFAIRS, by John R. Commons, is most instructive and entertaining 
about those features of the city concerning which it is the interest and duty of 
every man, woman and child to be familiar. Cloth, 50 cts. 

CITY PROBLEMS, by Delos F. Wilcox Ph. D., for grammar and high schools. 
Five chapters on Fresh Air, Light and Room for Play; The City's Waste; Life, 
Property and Good Order; The City's Finances; The Citizen — His Rights and 
Duties. Cloth, 35 cts. 

AMERICAN IDEAS, by Thomas R, Slicer, a series of talks to young people on the 
principles of American citizenship. In press. 

WASHINGTON, abridged from lrving's Life of Washington. Cloth, 35 cts. 

FRANKLIN, by Henry M. Leipziger, Ph. D., from autobiography. " 35 cts. 

JAY, by Wm. Jay Schieffelin, abridged from Life of jay by Wm. Jay. " 35 cts. 

COLONEL WARING, sketches by Albert Shaw and others. " 35 cts. 

STORIES FOR LITTLE CITIZENS, by Bolton Hall, John R. Commons and Miss 
Jennie B. Merrill, Supervisor of New York public kindergartens, and others to 
convey lessons in citizenship to the " wee ones,' r are full of delights. This is in 
course of preparation. 

OUR COUNTRY, monthly magazine of the Patriotic League, published at 
7 East 16th St., New York, ten months each year, is •$ 2 yearly, sample copy 10 cts. 
sent free to active members of the Patriotic League. The above described 
books are published serially, and others will follow on law, biography, histo- 
ry and other matters pertaining to intelligent citizenship. 

THE PATRIOTIC LEAGUE is chartered to promote the cause of systematic instruc- 
tion in citizenship. Membership is open to all. It furnishes to active mem- 
bers through OUR COUNTRY free of charge, a three years' course of instruc- 
tion in citizenship. Active members pay annual dues $ 1.50, in chapters of 10 or 
more members, $ 1 each. Members of the Alpha Chapter pay $ 5 or more a year. 

•6C0ND COPVr - 

COPYRIGHT, 1899, BY THE PATRIOTIC LEAGUE 



D COPIES RECEIVED. 




• * UfJ 



PREFACE 



/^VUR generous co-worker Mr. Charles F. Dole says in 
the preface of one of his delightful and valuable 
books on citizenship: "There seems to be a growing 
demand for the more adequate teaching of morals in the 
schools, especially with reference to the making of good 
citizens. But it is difficult to teach morals directly, or 
apart from the concrete subjects about which moral 
questions grow. Neither can sound morals be taught at 
all, without the touch of enthusiasm. We have, how- 
ever, in the great and interesting subjects of the conduct 
of governments, business and society, precisely the kind 
of material to furnish us directly with innumerable moral 
examples. The consideration of the public good, the 
welfare of the nation, or the interest of mankind, lies in 
the very region where patriotic emotion and moral 
enthusiasm are most naturally kindled." 

Government as it is ordinarily studied is nearly as 
abstract as mathematics or philosophy. It becomes con- 
crete for the student as soon as he becomes an active 
part in it, being led to use his judgment in the choice of 
officers and to perform the various duties of citizenship. 
To make the child an actual citizen with the real duties 
of citizenship, the School City has been designed and 
found useful. In this concrete form it is possible to 
make children of the primary school understand it. 

It is hoped that this form of school government will 
serve to keep in sight of the teacher and pupils the chief 
object of education, so generally lost sight of, which is 
that the individual shall wisely govern himself. At 
the same time the child will be trained to think of and to 
perform the duties of citizenship as it is desirable he 



PREFACE 



should do after he has reached his twenty-first year. 

The necessity for this sketch of American govern- 
ment has arisen from the needs of the School City. The 
ordinary text-books are too formidable for our purpose. 
This is especially true in that great majority of schools, 
whose teachers have never before studied civics. To 
put within reach of teachers as well as pupils, the 
requisite information concerning American government 
on which to base the organization of this self-govern- 
ing institution, it seemed necessary to make a brief 
outline of the forms and duties of popular government 
beginning with the national government and leading 
down through the state, the county, the town, the 
school district, the village and the city to the duties 
and organization of the School City itself. 

To make this outline specific it has been necessary 
to describe the government in a single state and a single 
city. New York State and City have been selected as 
types of American state and city organization. It seems 
as if this selection would be generally acceptable, since 
New York is the most populous state in the Union and 
New York City is the great metropolis in which all parts 
of the Nation, north, east, south and west have many 
interests, aside from the vital monetary and commercial 
interests with which every individual is connected di- 
rectly or indirectly. 

In schools outside of New York City and State, it is 
hoped that the teachers and children will, by whatever 
means may be in their reach, find out in what particulars 
their state and local government differs from that of New 
York. It is not probable that there will be found so 
much variation in any case, as to suggest any great dif- 
ference in the construction of the School City govern- 
ment. Such an investigation of the local government and 
comparison with this text will be a more valuable exer- 
cise than to use a ready-made comparison, or a descrip- 
tion without the comparison. 



PREFACE 



OUR COUNTRY SERIES 

OF BOOKS 



HTHIS is one of a series of small books designed by the 
Patriotic League to convey some ideas of practical 
patriotism and to cultivate the spirit of helpful kindness. 
Such books alone, if perfectly adapted to their purpose and 
put into the hands of young people, will, now and then, 
prove to be good seed fallen on good ground. It is well, 
however, for those who wish to be a blessing to the young 
people to recognize the fact that, as a rule, putting good 
books into the hands of boys and girls will not accomplish 
for them the thing that each one needs. On the other 
hand, they are glad to be led by older persons whom they 
respect, and they must have wise and constant leading 
and encouragement, if best results are to be gained. If 
they have a good leader, such as every teacher should 
be, then these books will be invaluable to them. 

The Patriotic League does not hope to see American 
citizenship- rise to the plane of perfection simply by means 
of teaching the words or the thoughts contained in the 
precepts of morality, but by daily and constant training 
of the children in the application of right principles to 
their actions at play and work, in the school and wherever 
they may be. Necessary to such training is a successful 
presentation of right principles, which is the aim of the 
Patriotic League authors. To aid in this training and prac- 
tice the President of the Patriotic League devised the 
"Gill School City," which has proved to be useful for its 
purpose. By this means the pupils become actual citizens 
of a republic, instead of subjects of the ordinary old style 
monarchical school government. The accepted responsi- 
bility of this citizenship, in the hands of a good leader is 
of great value. In connection with this are the "School 
State" and "School Republic." 



PREFACE 



The series of "Our Country" Books of which this 
book is one, is issued under the authority of the following 
named men and women who are officers of 

THE PATRIOTIC LEAGUE 

' Address all mail to P. O. Station O, N.Y. 

GENERAL OFFICERS 

WILSON L, GILL, Pres't, JAMES T. WHITE, Sec'y, ALEXANDER M. HADDEN, Treas. 

COUNCIL : 
ABRAM S. HEWITT, Ex-Mayor of N. Y. O. O. HOWARD, Maj. Gen. U. S. A. 

EDWARD EVERETT HALE JAMES A. BEAVER. Ex-Gov. of Pa. 

DORMAN B. EATON, Ex U. S. Civil Service Commissioner 

HONORARY AND ADVISORY BOARD: 

WM. McKINLEY, President of the U. S. JOSIAH STRONG, Pres. Social Service Lgue. 

GROVER CLEVELAND, Ex-President WM. H. P. FAUNCE, Pres. Brown University 

BENJAMIN HARRISON, Ex-President ISIDOR STRAUS, Pres. Educational Alliance 

GEORGE DEWEY, Admiral, U. S. Navy FRANCIS E. CLARK, Father of Chr. Endeav. 

LEONARD WOOD, Brig. Gen. U. S. A. W. S. RAINSFORD, D. D. 

THEODORE ROOSEVELT, Governor, N.Y. THOMAS McMILLAN, Paulist Father, 

SIMON GRATZ, Ex-Pres. Phila.Bd Pub Ed. Gen. T. J. MORGAN, Ex-lnd. Com. 

C. R. WOODRUFF, Sec, Natl. Munic. Lgue WM. A. GILES, Civic Federation, Chicago 

P. V. N. MYERS, Dean Univ. of Cin'ti MERRILL E. GATES, Ex-Pres Amherst Col 

T. M. BALLIET, Supt. Schools, Springfield WALTER L. HERVY, City Exmnr N.Y. Schls 

HERBERT WELSH, Pres. Natl. Indian Rights Assn. Mrs. MARY LOWE DICKINSON 

ALICE M. BIRNEY, Pres. Nat'l Congress of Mothers JOHN LEWIS CLARK 

LA SALLE A. MAYNARD, JOHN W. HEGEMAN, RUFORD FRANKLIN, JACOB A. RMS 

R. FULTON CUTTING, Pres. Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor 

WILLIAM L. STRONG, Ex-Mayor of N.Y., President of the Alpha Chapter, 

JOHN H. C. NEVIUS, Vice Pres. Alpha Chapter, Col. HENRY HERSCHELL ADAMS, 

ARTHUR GOADBY, Sec. and Treas. " " ROBERT S. MacART HUR, D. D. 

WM. JAY SCHIEFFELIN, Ex-City Civil Serv.Com. Mrs. ESTHER HERRMAN, 

Gen. JOHN EATON, Ex-U.S.Com. of Eden, late Director of Public Instruction, Porto Rico 

LIFE MEMBERS: 

WILLIAM E. DODGE, GEORGE D. MACKAY, WILLIAM IVES WASHBURN, BERNARD 
CRONSON, Mrs. JOHN L.GILL, DANIEL B. WESSON, JOHN A. CASS, HENRY B. 
METCALF, JOHN J. McCOOK, Mrs. SAMUEL R. PERCY, Mrs. LOUIS L. TODD. 

LEAGUE INSTRUCTORS: 

CHARLES F. DOLE, THOMAS R. SLICER, 

JAMES ALBERT WOODBURN, Indiana University 

JOHN R. COMMONS and JAMES H.HAMILTON, Syracuse University 

HENRY M. LEIPZIGER, Supervisor, Free Public Lectures, N. Y. Public Schools 

M. L. DE LUCE, University of Cincinnati, KATE B. SHERWOOD, 

ALBERT SHAW, Editor " Review of Reviews" 

WM. C. ROBINSON, Yale College and Catholic University of America 

GEORGE W. KIRCHWEY, FRANCIS M. BURDICK and FRANK J. GOODNOW, 

Columbia Univ. DELOS F.WILCOX, MILO R.MALTBIE, Ed. " Municipal Affairs'* 

IN flEMORIAn : JOHN JAY, ELLIOT F. SHEPARD, GEO. E. WARING, JR., 
JOSEPH LAMB, SAMUEL FRANCIS SMITH. 




THE PRINCIPLES OF AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP 

AS TAUGHT BY 

THE PATRIOTIC LEAGUE 

Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them. 

\A/E BELIEVE, In the principles of the Declaration of Independence — That all 
men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain in- 
alienable rights ; that among these are lifc, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. 

We believe, That good character, helpful kindness, to all creatures and civic intel- 
ligence are the basis of true citizenship. 

We believe, That the public, in assuming the education of children, becomes 
responsible to them not only for physical, industrial, mental and moral cult- 
ure, but also for special training, to the end that they shall be most happy 
useful and patriotic while children, and be intelligent and faithful citizens. 

We believe, That it is our duty to consecrate ourselves to the service of our country 
to study the history and principles of our Government, to faithfully discharge all 
obligations of citizenship, to improve our laws and their administration, and to 
do all which may fulfil the ideal of the founders of our Republic — a government 
of the people, for the people and by the people, of equal rights for all and special 
privileges for none — and to the maintenance of such a government we mutually 
pledge to one another our lives, our fortunes and our sacred honor. 

We believe, That we should endeavor to lead others to understand, accept and 
extend these principles, and to uphold and defend the institutions of our country. 

THE YOUNG CITIZEN'S PLEDGE 



I AM a CITIZEN of AMERICA and HEIR to all her Greatness and Renown. 

As the health and happiness of my body depend upon each muscle and nerv 
and drop of blood doing its work in its place, so the health and happiness of my 
country depend upon each citizen doing his work in his place. I will not fill any 
post, nor pursue any business where I shall live upon my fellow-citizens without doing 
them useful service in return ; for I plainly see that this must bring suffering and 
want to some of us. 

As it is cowardly for a soldier to run away from the battle, so it is cowardly 
for any citizen not to contribute his share to the well-being of his country. . America 
is my own dear land ; she nourishes me, and I will love her and do my duty to her 
whose child, servant and civic soldier I am. 

I will do nothing to desecrate her soil or pollute her air, or to degrade her 
children, who are my brothers and sisters. I will try to make her cities beautiful 
and her citizens healthy and glad so that she may be a most desirable home for her 
children in days to come. 

I accept the Principles of the Patriotic League for my own and I will do the 
best I can to live and act by them every day. 



CONTENTS 

Part I 
OBJECTS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT . . 13 

Part I I 
DIVISION OF GOVERNMENT BUSINESS . 14 



Part I I I 
THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 

1 The Business it Transacts 

2 Sparation of Powers 

3 The Legislative Department 



20 
20 
21 
21 

22 



(1) The House of Representatives 

(2) The Senate ...... 

4 The Executive Department 

(1) The President ..... 

(2) The Vice-President „ 

(3) The Cabinet 

5 The Judicial Department .... 

6 The Rights and Duties of Citizens in relation to 

the National Government . . . 23 

Part IV 
THE STATE GOVERNMENT 

1 The Business Entrusted to It . . '2$ 

2 The Organization of Government in the State 35 

3 The Central State Government . . -36 

(1) The Legislative Department ... 36 

(2) The Exective Department . . .38 

(3) The Judicial Department 39 



to CONTENTS 



4 Rural Local Government ..... 


4i 


(i) The County ...... 


4i 


i ) The Board of Supervisors 


42 


2) The County Executive Officers . 


43 


3) The County Judiciary .... 


45 


(2) The Town 


46 


1) The Town Meeting .... 


46 


2) The Town Executive Officers 


48 


3) The Town Judiciary .... 


49 


(3) The School District .... 


5o 


1) The School Meeting- .... 


50 


2) The Officers of the School District. 


5* 


3) The Schools ..*... 


52 


(4) The Village 


53 


5 City Government ...... 


55 


(1) The Cities of New York State in General . 


56 


(2) The City of New York .... 


58 


1 The Local Divisions .... 


59 


1 Boroughs ..... 


60 


• 2 Council Districts .... 


61 


3 Senate and Local Improvement Dis- 




tricts ..... 


61 


4 Assembly and Aldermanic Districts 


61 


5 Judicial Districts .... 


62 


6 Wards ..... 


62 



The Legislative Power . . . -63 

1 Municipal Assembly ... 63 

2 Board of Public Improvements . 65 

3 Board of Estimate and Apportionment 67 

4 Board of Health . . . .68 

5 Other Boards .... 68 

The Executive Power . . . .69 

1 Mayor . \ . . . . 69 

2 Municipal Civil Service Commission 71 



CONTENTS 



ii 



3 Municipal Statistics 


72 


4 City Record . 


7* 


5 Commissioners of Accounts 


73 


6 Finance ...... 


73 


7 Taxes and Assessments 


76 


8 Law . 


77 


9 Police ...... 


78 


io Correction . 


79 


ii Charities 


80 


12 Health . 


80 


13 Fire 


81 


14 Buildings . 


83 


15 Public Improvements . 


84 


a Water Supply 




84 


b Sewers 




84 


c Highways 


Under the 


85 


d Bridges 


Board of 


85 


e Street Cleaning 


h Public 


85 


/ Public Build- 


Improvements 




ings, Lighting 






and Supplies j 


86 


16 Docks and Ferries 


86 


17 Parks ...... 


87 


18 Education .... 


88 


Judicial Power ..... 


92 


1. Civil Courts .... 


• 92 


a City Court .... 


92 


b Municipal Court 


• 9 2 


2. Criminal Courts .... 


93 


a General Sessions 


• 93 


b Special Sessions . 


93 


c City Magistra 


tes' Courts . 


• 94 



6 Rights and Duties of Citizens with Reference 
to Government within the State 



95 



12 CONTENTS 



Part V 
THE SCHOOL CITY 

I. Object of the School City ■ . . . 97 

II. Relation of the School City to other Branches 

of Government 98 

III. Organization of the School City . . . 99 

In Rural Districts . . . . 99 

In Cities ....... 100 

1 Suffrage in the School City . . . 101 

2 Nominations for Office .... 101 > 

3 Elections 102 

4 Council 103 

5 Mayor 103 

6 Police, Health and other special Depart- 

ments ..... . 104 

7 Courts ....... 105 

8 Charter 106 

9 Amendments to the Charter . . .107 
10 Improvements in Government . . 108 




AN OUTLINE OF GOVERNMENT IN THE 

UNITED STATES 

I 

OBJECTS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT 

QOVERNMENT in the United States is for the greatest 
good of all the people. Through government, the 
people promote the welfare of all by protecting the right 
of every law-abiding person to "life, liberty and the 
pursuit of happiness." The pursuit of happiness includes 
the right to freely earn and save or spend money and 
other property. The welfare of all is promoted also 
by the punishment of every person who refuses to 
obey the law and respect the rights of his fellows. But 
government goes still further than the protection of 
individual rights and the regulation of individual con- 
duct. There are many things which the individual can- 
not readily do for himself and which must, never-the-Iess, 
be done. In many cases these things are undertaken by 
the government. Thus the welfare of the whole people 
is advanced in three ways, — by protection, by punish- 
ment and by co-operation in the performance of general 
services. 



14 GOVERNMENT 



ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE OBJECTS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT 

Examples of the ways in which the good of all is 
promoted by government could be given in great num- 
ber. The right of all persons to freedom of speech, 
freedom of thought and freedom of religion, so long as 
people do not wilfully injure their fellows by the abuse 
of their freedom, is guaranteed by the government. But 
persons who kill other people or steal from their neigh- 
bors or set fire to houses, are punished. As instances of 
co-operation for the good of all, we should not forget that 
the government makes public roads and streets for con- 
venience in travel, ditches and sewers to drain the land, 
canals for commerce, bridges for crossing rivers, and 
aqueducts for bringing water from lakes and mountain 
streams for the people of great cities to drink. The 
government also maintains the post office for carrying 
letters, newspapers, packages, etc., keeps a record of 
titles to land, makes predictions about the weather, 
educates the children and protects the people from 
contagious diseases so far as possible. 



II 

DIVISION OF THE BUSINESS OF AMERICAN 

GOVERNMENT 

COR their own convenience, the people have divided 
their public business into two parts. One part, which 
is of interest to all the people of the country, has been 
entrusted to a set of public officials chosen by the people 
living in all parts of the country. These officials form 
the National or United States Government. The other 
part of the public business does not concern the people in 
all parts of the country equally, and so it has been 
entrusted to public officials chosen separately by the 
r&veral States into which the country is divided. These 



NA TIONAL 



public officials form the State Governments of the forty- 
five States in the Union. 

REASON FOR DIVIDING THE PEOPLE'S BUSINESS INTO TWO 

PARTS 

The reason why the people of the United States 
have found it convenient to divide their public business 
into two parts and to establish separate sets of public 
officers to carry on this business, is plain. The country 
is so large that the needs of the people are not the same in 
all places for all things. In Colorado or Nevada the gov- 
ernment may have to irrigate the land, while in Illinois or 
New York it may have to build canals for commerce orfor 
drainage. In some parts of the country most of the people 
live in cities; in other parts, most of the people live on 
farms. Some parts of the country are warm the whole 
year; some parts have long cold winters. In the South, 
cotton, rice and sugar are the chief products of agricul- 
ture. In the North, wheat, corn and other cereals are 
most important. The different conditions, the different 
industries, and the different types of people who live in 
the various sections of the country, make it necessary to 
leave a great deal of the public business to the manage- 
ment of the separate States. At the same time, the unity 
of the Nation and the common interests of all the people 
require that some of the public business should be in 
charge of a central, national government. 



Ill 

THE NATIONAL OR UNITED STATES 

GOVERNMENT 

i The Business it Transacts 

THE business entrusted to the National Government is 

described in the Constitution of the United States. 

Powers which are not granted by the Constitution to the 

National authorities cannot be exercised by them. The 



1 6 GOVERNMENT 



principal items of the business of the National Govern- 
ment are the following: 

i Foreign ^Affairs, including the making of treaties, 
the sending out and receiving of ambassadors, the 
appointment of consuls, the protection of Ameri- 
can citizens in other lands, etc. 

2 (Maintenance of the army and navy, including the 

carrying on of war with foreign nations and the 
Indians, the suppression of rebellions and riots at 
home, and the grant of pensions to old soldiers 
and sailors. 

3 Regulation of foreign and inter-state commerce, 

including tariff laws, and laws governing railroads 
and canal and steamship companies. 

4 Provision for persons coming to this country from 

foreign lands, including immigration and natural- 
ization laws. 

5 Coining and regulation of money. 

6 Granting of patents and copyrights. 

7 'Punishment for certain crimes, such as treason, coun- 

terfeiting and crimes committed on the sea. 

8 Government of the District of Columbia and the 

territories. 

9 Management of the 'Post Office. 

io Making fe Internal Improvements/' including roads, 
canals, harbors, etc. 

1 1 Taking of the census, and the collection and distri- 

bution of various kinds of information. 

12 ^Deciding disputes between the different States, or 

the citizens of different States. 
1^3 'Protection of individual liberty in accordance with 



SEPARA TION OF PO WERS 1 7 



the principles of the United States Constitution. 
14 Raising of revenue for the support of the National 
Government, by means of customs duties, internal 
revenue taxes, sale of postage stamps, sale of 
public lands, etc. 



2 Separation of Powers 

Under the American system of government the 
law-making, the law-executing and the law-interpreting 
functions are put into the hands of separate authorities. 
For this reason we find three great divisions of the 
National Government, namely, the legislative department, 
the executive department and the judicial department. 

REASONS FOR THE SEPARATION OF POWERS 

The reasons for the separation of powers are easily 
understood. If the same authority were empowered to 
make the laws and then enforce them according to its 
own interpretation, there would be no check upon the 
arbitrary action of the government, and the liberties of 
the people would be in danger. Besides this, we must 
remember that a large body of men chosen from different 
parts of the country, is more likely to represent the 
wishes of the whole people in making laws than one 
man would be. On the other hand, one man or a few 
men can better carry the laws into execution than a 
large body could, where power and responsibility would 
be divided. For interpreting the laws it is needful to 
have a special body of men, who are trained students of 
law, and as little as possible subject to the influences of 
partisanship. The division into legislative, executive and 
judicial authorities is carefully marked in the National 
Government and also in the central State governments, 
but is less clear in local and municipal governments. It 
is possible, however, to see the three powers being 
exercised side by side in every grade of government, 
even though they are sometimes exercised by the sarr.e 
officials, 



iS GOVERNMENT 



3 The Legislative Department 

The legislative power of the National Government is 
vested in Congress, which is composed of two bodies of 
men, the Senate and the House of Representatives. 
The laws of the United States are passed by a majority 
vote of both Houses of Congress and signed by the Pres- 
ident of the United States. If the President vetoes meas- 
ures passed by Congress, they must be passed again by 
a two-thirds vote in each House before they can become 
laws. Treaties, which are international laws, are drawn 
up by the President and approved by a two-thirds vote 
of the Senate. Bills for raising revenue have to be in- 
troduced first into the House of Representatives. Con- 
gress meets every year on the first Monday of December, 
and remains in session for several months. A special 
session of Congress may be called by the President at 
any time. The terms of office of members of Congress 
expire at midnight of the third day of March in the 
odd-numbered years. 

(i) THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES 

This body consists at the present time of 357 
members, elected by the people living in the various 
States. Each State is entitled to at least one member of 
the House of Representatives, and additional members 
are assigned to the States in proportion to their popula- 
tion. A new assignment is made, by law of Congress, • 
every ten years, after the census of the United States has 
been taken. Members of the House are called members 
of Congress or Congressmen. They are chosen for a 



THE SENATE 19 



term of two years and are usually elected by single dis- 
tricts. A Congressman must be at least twenty-five 
years old, a citizen of the United States of seven years' 
standing and a resident of the State from which he is 
chosen. The House of Representatives adopts rules to 
govern its procedure and elects its own officers. The 
presiding officer of the House is the Speaker, who 
appoints the standing committees, and decides questions 
of order, etc. He is one of the most powerful officers 
in the National Government. 



(2) THE SENATE 

This body is called the upper house of Congress, 
and is composed at the present time of ninety members, 
two being chosen by the legislature of each of the forty- 
five States. Senators are elected for a term of six years, 
but they are divided into three classes so that about one- 
third of their number goes out of office every second year. 
A senator must be at least thirty years old, a citizen of 
the United States of nine years" standing and a resident of 
the State which he represents. The Senate adopts rules 
of procedure and elects officers, except a presiding officer. 
The Vice-President of the United States is President of 
the Senate but he has no vote except in case of a tie. The 
Senate elects its standing committees. Besides its power 
to accept or reject treaties submitted to it by the execu- 
tive, the Senate may confirm by a two-thirds vote or 
reject the appointments to all of the important offices 
made by the President. 



20 GOVERNMENT 



4 The Executive Department 

The executive power of the National Government 
is vested in the President of the United States. It is 
necessary to consider also the Vice-President and the 
members of the Cabinet in this connection. 

(i) THE PRESIDENT 

In order to be eligible to the office of President, a 
man must be at least thirty-five years of age and a natu- 
ral-born citizen of the United States. The President is 
elected for a term of four years and takes his office on the 
fourth day of March. He is chosen by indirect election. 
The people of the several States choose as many Presi- 
dential electors as the number of representatives in both 
Houses of Congress to which the States are entitled. 
These electors meet at the capitol of each State and vote 
for President. The votes cast by the electors of each 
State are sent to the President of the Senate, and are 
opened by him and counted in the presence of the members 
of both Houses of Congress. If no candidate for the Pres- 
idency gets a majority of votes, the House of Representa- 
tives, voting by States, chooses one of the three leading 
candidates to be President. The President is command- 
er-in-chief of the army and navy and is bound to defend 
the country against foreign and domestic foes and to 
enforce all the laws of Congress. He has power to par- 
don offenders against the laws of the United States 
except in cases of impeachment. The President appoints 
the officers of the judicial department, as well as his own 



THE CABINET 21 



subordinates in the executive department, subject in 
most cases to the approval of the Senate by a two-thirds 
vote. The President receives foreign ambassadors, and 
negotiates treaties subject to the Senate's approval by 
a two-thirds vote. He may call special sessions of Con- 
gress and is bound to send messages to Congress from 
time to time, on the condition and needs of the country 
and the government. He receives a salary of $50,000 a 
year. 

(2) THE VICE-PRESIDENT 

This officer is chosen for the same term as the Presi- 
dent and must have the same qualifications. The President 
and the Vice-President cannot be residents of the 
same State. The Vice-President is chosen by the same 
electors who choose the President, but if they fail to give 
a majority vote for any one candidate, the election of the 
Vice-President goes to the Senate, which must choose 
one of the two leading candidates by a majority vote of 
all the senators. The Vice-President presides over the 
Senate and succeeds to the office of President whenever 
that office becomes vacant for any reason. The salary of 
the Vice-President is $8,000 a year. 

(3 ) THE CABINET 

In order to carry on the executive business under 
the control of the President, a great many subordinate 
officers are required. Chief of these are the eight 
heads of executive departments who form the Cabinet 
or body of advisors of the President. These eight 
officers are the — 



22 GOVERNMENT 



Secretary of State, 

Secretary of the Treasury, 

Secretary of War, 

Attorney General, 

Postmaster General, 

Secretary of the Navy, 

Secretary of the Interior, 

Secretary of Agriculture. 
These officers are appointed by the President with 
the consent of the Senate, and hold their offices for four 
years, subject to removal by the President. Each mem- 
ber of the Cabinet has charge of one great branch of the 
executive department. In case both the President and 
Vice-President should die, resign or be in any way dis- 
abled, one of the Cabinet officers would become Presi- 
dent for the unexpired term, in the order named above. 
Under the general supervision of the Cabinet officers are 
the 1 80, ooo officials and regular employees of the Nation- 
al Government. About half of the whole number of 
subordinates are in the "classified service," that is, they 
are subject to the civil service regulations which provide 
for appointment to office after examination to determine 
the merit of the applicants. 



5 The Judicial Department 

The judicial power of the National Government is 
vested in the Supreme Court of the United States and the 
circuit and district courts established by Congress, All 
of the judges of the National courts are appointed by the 
President and the Senate and hold their places for life or 
until they resign or are retired on account of age and dis- 



THE STATE 23 



ability, unless they are impeached. The Supreme Court 
consists of a Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices. 
There are nine circuit courts and sixty-five district 
courts. The National courts have the final judicial deter- 
mination of all cases in which the laws and Constitution 
of the United States are involved. The United States 
Supreme Court is the highest legal authority upon the 
forms and functions of the government and the liberties 
of the individual under the Constitution of our country. 



6 The Rights and Duties of Citizens in Relation 
to the National Government 

Every person who is allowed by any State to vote 
for the members of the lower house of the State legisla- 
ture has the right to vote for members of Congress and 
Presidential electors. Every citizen has the right to call 
upon the National Government to protect him in the 
enjoyment of civil liberty. He may also claim protec- 
tion when travelling or staying temporarily in foreign 
countries. Every citizen is bound to obey the laws of 
the United States, to assist in the defense of the country, 
if called upon, and to pay taxes, duties and imposts 
levied upon him or his goods by Congress. 



IV 

THE STATE GOVERNMENT 

1 The Business Entrusted to it 

A LL of the public business which has not been put into 
the hands of the National Government by the United 



n Government 



States Constitution is attended to by the several States. 
We could not name all the things that may be done by 
the States, for the people in different parts of the country 
have different needs and different ideas as to what things 
government should undertake. The people of each 
State, like the people of the United States, have made a 
constitution in which the ways and duties of the govern- 
ment and the liberties and duties of citizens are set forth. 
Let us see some of the things which the State has to do 
and then describe the organization of the State and local 
governments. The following list includes many of 
the most important public services which the State is 
generally expected to perform for the people. 

I Determining the qualifications for citizenship and the 
suffrage within the State, and the way of holding 
elections. 

Explanation. In the State of New York the consti- 
tution gives the right of suffrage to every male citizen of 
the United States who has been a citizen for three 
months, is twenty-one years old and has lived in 
the State for one year, in the county for four months 
and the election district for thirty days prior to the 
election day on which he wishes to vote. But men who 
have been found guilty of bribery or any other infamous 
crime lose their right to vote, and persons who have 
made bets on the result of any election are forbidden 
to vote at that election. The constitution also requires 
that voters shall be registered at least ten days before each 
election except for town and village elections, for which 
no registration is necessary, unless required by an act 
of the Legislature. Thus it is seen that in New York all . 
women and children are excluded from the general 
right of suffrage, as well as all unnaturalized foreigners and 
some classes of criminals. Nevertheless, we have what 
is called universal or manhood suffrage, because every 



The state *$ 



man can vote whether poor or rich, ignorant or educat- 
ed. In the townships, villages and some of the smaller 
cities of the State, women are allowed to vote for school 
officers. In some western States women have the full 
right of suffrage. 

2 Establishment of counties, townships, school districts, 

villages, cities and other divisions of the State for 
choosing representatives and for local self-govern- 
ment. 

Explanation. The State of New York is divided 
into eight judicial districts, thirty-four Congressional dis- 
tricts, fifty Senate districts and one hundred and fifty 
Assembly districts. The State is also divided for pur- 
poses of local government into sixty counties which 
contain thirty-nine cities, a large number of villages and 
more than 900 towns, in most States, called town- 
ships. The cities are divided into upwards of 300 
wards, and the whole territory of the State was in 1896 
divided into 5407 election districts. In the counties 
and generally in the towns there are several school dis- 
tricts, numbering in the whole State more than 1 1,000. 
This does not apply to the counties of New York, 
Kings and Richmond, which are wholly included within 
the boundaries of the enlarged city of New York. The 
division of the State into districts for various purposes 
is necessary for the convenience of the voters and the 
public officials. The differences in the physical geogra- 
phy of the State and in the character and interests of the 
people in different sections also make it necessary to 
establish local districts for purposes of self-government. 

3 Granting charters of incorporation to villages, cities 

and private companies organized for educational, 
religious, commercial, manufacturing and other 
purposes. 

Explanation. A corporation is a body of men who 
by authority of law have the right to act as one man. 
That is, a corporation may sue and be sued in the courts, 
may borrow money, may have a seal and may make 



26 GOVERNMENT 

contracts. A corporation does not go out of existence 
because some of its members die, but in legal phrase, 
has " perpetual succession." The great importance of 
public or municipal corporations, which include cities 
and villages as well as counties and towns, will be seen a 
little further ' on. It is probable that very few people 
fully realize how important to the community 
the private corporations, creatures of the govern- 
ment, are. The constitution of the State forbids the 
Legislature to charter any private corporation by special 
act. Hence we cannot tell the number of such corpora- 
tions from looking into the law-books. But companies 
are formed under the general laws of the Legislature for 
all kinds of purposes. Churches, colleges, banks, insur- 
ance companies, clubs, railroad and street car companies, 
gas and electric companies, publishing companies, and 
countless other bodies of men organized for special pur- 
poses are corporations, which could not carry on their 
work at all as they do if they did not have the consent 
of the State Government. Almost all the great enter- 
prises of modern life are carried on by corporations, and 
sometimes it is a question whether the government shall 
be strong enough to properly control the corporations 
which it has created. 

4 'Providing schools for the education of children besides 
furnishing opportunities for culture to citizens 
of all ages. 

Explanation. Free public education is compar- 
atively new. A century ago in most countries, 
including the civilized nations of Europe, only a 
small proportion of grown up men and women could 
read or write. And, too, only a few had the right to 
vote. But during this century freedom has made great 
progress in the world so that in many countries we find 
practically every grown-up man entitled to suffrage. If 
all men are to be voters, they should all be educated. 
So the State has undertaken not only to maintain free 
common schools, but to compel all children between 
certain ages to attend them. In New York the compul- 
sory school age is from eight to fourteen years. But the 
people are not satisfied with maintaining common schools. 
They also maintain high schools, and in some cases gq> 



THE STA TE _J7 

leges and universities. State universities are more com- 
mon in the western States than in the eastern. In 
Europe the government often maintains trade schools 
and technical schools. 

5 Support of the poor who are unable to take care of 

themselves, care of friendless orphans and outcast 
children and provision of homes and asylums for 
the insane, the deaf and dumb, and other unfor- 
tunates. 

Explanation. Formerly the government did not 
relieve the poor except in cases of general famine. 
Ordinary poverty and distress were either relieved by 
neighbors and charitable people or were left to end in 
starvation or great suffering. A great deal of charity 
work has always been done by the church and is still so 
done. But as the land has been taken up and people 
have become more dependent on one another, our increas- 
ing regard for human life has compelled the government 
to step in and keep the poor from starving or freezing to 
death whenever their need becomes known, and to 
take care of helpless children and old people who have 
no friends to look after their wants. The insane are 
generally put into public asylums, though in many cases 
their friends pay the government for taking care of 
them. 

6 Regulation of labor, including the relations of laborers 

to their employers, the wages of laborers, the 
hours of work, the days which shall be holidays 
and rest-days, the age before which children shall 
not be employed in factories, the kinds of work in 
which women shall not engage, the means used 
for protecting workmen in dangerous occupations, 
etc. 

Explanation. Nowadays the government does not 
attempt to regulate labor as much as it used to. The 
belief is widespread that hours of employment, wages, 
etc., should in most cases be regulated by free competi- 



28 GOVERNMENT 



tion and contract. However, there are still many laws in 
reference to Sunday labor, child-labor and factory work, 
besides the eight-hour law for employees of the city. 

7 Protection of the public health by removing nuisances, 

destroying unsanitary dwellings, isolating persons 
sick with contagious diseases, and prescribing 
rules of conduct. 

Explanation. The government does not attempt to 
protect the health of the individual against the results of 
his own vice or carelessness. If a man chooses to ruin his 
physical organism by gluttony or the excessive use of 
stimulants or if he carelessly exposes himself to cold or 
wet, the people as a whole do not consider it a part of 
the functions of government to protect that man from 
drunkenness, dyspepsia and rheumatism. But when, 
through one person's carelessness, the health of the whole 
community becomes endangered, the government inter- 
feres. Thus people are not allowed to leave dead animals 
unburied on their premises. Children who have the 
measles or the diphtheria are not allowed to go to school 
or run in the streets. Persons sick with such diseases 
are quarantined. Boards of health issue rules of conduct 
for the people, especially in times of danger from epidemic. 

8 Maintenance of public order and guarding the public 

peace. 

Explanation. Even in a free country like America, 
citizens are not at liberty to do just as they please in 
public places or in their own homes. For the good of 
all, the government undertakes to prevent unnecessary 
disturbances on Sunday which would interfere with the 
quiet of those who go to church for worship, and to keep 
people from making loud noises in the night which 
would disturb folks who want to sleep. The people try 
also to prevent quarrelsome families from disturbing their 
neighbors. In the same way, the people do not gener- 
ally allow large gatherings in the streets which would 
impede travel and traffic. The officers who are charged 
with maintaining order and peace are constables an4 
policemen* 



THE STATE 29 



9 Organisation of the militia and the training of the 

people in the use of arms for defense in time of 
foreign or civil war. 

Explanation. Although the National Government is 
charged with the maintenance of the standing army and 
the conduct of military operations, the duty of organiz- 
ing the reserves is given to the State governments. The 
militia consists of all able-bodied men between the ages 
of eighteen and forty-five who are not specially exempted 
from militia duty by reason of their occupations. Clergy- 
men, school teachers, firemen and policemen are some of 
the exempt classes. The militia may be called into the 
service of the United States in times of war or insurrec- 
tion. The companies in active training are gener- 
ally called State troops or members of the National 
Guard. These troops may be called out by the State 
governor to suppress riots and extraordinary disturb- 
ances, which are really civil wars on a small scale. 

10 Defining of property, the making of provisions for 

its exchange and transmission at death, and the 
guarantee of protection to the property owner 
against all attempts to take away his possessions 
without legal cause. 

Explanation. The State Government, in so far as it 
is not limited by the constitution, passes laws govern- 
ing debt, sale of real estate and personal property, record 
of titles, etc. The State, through its local officers, keeps 
a record of ownership of land and of mortgages on land. 
Public officers carry into execution the wills made by 
persons before death. Public courts determine die 
damages which individuals suffer at the hands of other 
individuals in violation of the laws regarding property. 
This duty of the State Government to define, regulate 
and protect private property is at the very basis of 
modern political life. As a matter of fact, much of the 
property law is inherited by the several States from the 
English common law, but this can be changed at any 
time by new legislation, 



3 o GOVERNMENT 



1 1 Establishment of courts and their procedure for settle- 

ment of disputes. 

Explanation. The courts of law are chiefly to deter- 
mine and enforce legal rights. They are intended to be 
the bulwarks of individual freedom and individual and 
official responsibility. Besides the regular law courts, 
however, the State sometimes establishes or sanctions 
semi-public courts for arbitrating differences between 
laborers and employers or between rivals in commerce 
and industry. 

12 Regulation of marriage and the family, including 

the rights and duties of husband and wife, the 
powers of parents over their children, and the 
responsibility for the support of children and dis- 
abled and aged relatives. 

Explanation. In ancient times, under the patriarch- 
al system, the head of the family, husband and father, had 
absolute power over the other members of the family. 
He could kill his wife and children including grown up 
sons, if he chose. But nowadays the government has 
given women and children many legal rights even in 
family life. The State Government regulates the inherit- 
ance of property and gives the wife a share in her hus- 
band's estate. The State law also declares that a man 
shall not have more than one wife at a time, or a woman 
more than one husband. If the people of the State 
believed in polygamy or in no marriage at all, they could 
make laws to carry out their wishes. 

13 Promotion of public morality by teaching right con- 

duct in the schools, by establishing reformatories 
for the correction of vicious and criminal persons, 
by regulating morally dangerous institutions such 
as saloons, and by suppressing, punishing or 
regulating various forms of vice such as drunken- 
ness, gambling, indecent and profane conversation 
and immoral exhibitions and entertainments. 



THE STATE 



3i 



Explanation. In America religious ceremony and 
instruction are not considered a part of the functions of 
government. Every citizen is permitted to worship as 
he pleases or not to worship at all if he prefers that. 
But the State is founded on the principle that the wel- 
fare of the whole people must be attained through the 
individual's self-restraint and obedience to law. Govern- 
ment has to do with rights and duties, and so the gener- 
al principles of moral conduct are taught to the whole 
people by governmental agencies or with governmental 
sanction. In the schools, the evils of gluttony and in- 
temperance are set forth. Honesty, industry and kind- 
ness are inculcated. Profanity and other evil habits are re- 
strained. A very large part of public education is moral. 
A citizen who, in his private life is bad, is not usually a 
profitable member of society as organized for govern- 
ment. Besides the instruction given in the public 
schools, the people endeavor to repress many forms of 
vice which tend to corrupt the morals of the community 
at large. Everywhere the liquor business is regulated 
by the government with intent to diminish its evil 
results. Gambling is generally prohibited by law. Fight- 
ing, coarse conversation and indecent behavior in public 
are restrained by the authorities. 

14 Defining and pnnishment of nearly all kinds of 

crime, by means of prosecution, fines, imprison- 
ments and in extreme cases by the death penalty. 

Explanation. Among our Anglo-Saxon fathers, 
many centuries ago, crimes were avenged by the injured 
individual or by his family and friends. But now the 
people consider that a crime is an injury to the whole 
community, and that the government should punish the 
criminal. Under our system of government to avenge a 
crime oneself is to commit another crime. Every one 
accused of wrong-doing is entitled to a fair hearing and 
trial by a regular court, before being condemned and 
punished. the principal crimes punished by the State 
are murder, theft, burglary, forgery, perjury, fraud, 
adultery, bigamy, assault and bribery. 

15 Inspection and regulation of the food and drink 

trade. 



32 GOVERNMENT 



Explanation. The importance of this function of 
the government is very great in large cities, where the 
people depend almost wholly for their food supply upon 
articles raised or manufactured in distant places. In the 
cities milk is sold which has been obtained from coun- 
try dairies. The government has undertaken to see that 
milk from diseased cattle is not put upon the market and 
that milk dealers do not water their milk or adulterate it 
in other ways. In like manner, the fruit, meat and fish 
supply of a great city is inspected by government. Beer 
and canned goods might just as well be inspected. The 
system of governmental food and drink inspection has 
not been carried so far in America as in most European 
countries. 

1 6 Regulation of the construction of buildings, such 

as tenement houses, office buildings, factories, 
theatres and churches. 

Explanation. The regulation of buildings also 
becomes important with the growth of large cities. 
Here it is thought necessary to guard the health and 
safety of the people by prescribing the kinds of materials 
used in building, the methods of construction, the venti- 
lation and lighting of buildings and the means of escape 
in case of fire. In a city like New York it is also neces- 
sary to forbid land-owners to put up houses covering 
more than a certain proportion of their land. In this 
way the people's health and comfort are protected by 
making provision for light, ventilation and yards. The 
State may also regulate the height of buildings, and 
prevent the erection of " skyscrapers'' to darken the 
streets and endanger the lives of the people. 

17 Construction and care of roads, streets, canals and 

bridges, so that the people may have common 
highways upon which they may travel and trans- 
port their goods safely, quickly and easily. 

Explanation. Public roads were first made by 
government in ancient times in order to make the move- 
ment of troops easy; but in these days of peace, roads 
are everywhere built for the use of the people. In cities 



THE STATE 33 



the roads are called streets, and are paved and cleaned in 
order to accommodate the traffic. The streets are also 
used as road-beds for street-car lines, and under the 
streets are laid sewer pipes, water pipes, gas pipes, 
electric wires, pneumatic tubes, etc. Bridges are con- 
structed across streams and ravines. The great Brook- 
lyn Bridge is an example of what the people do through 
the government for the convenience of all. Canals are 
sometimes built by the government for transportation or 
irrigation purposes. The Erie Canal, built by the State of 
New York, was opened in 1825, and has made the won- 
derful growth of New York City possible by furnishing 
a channel for commerce between the East and the West. 
Thus, by the construction of roads, bridges and canals, 
the people aim to break down the natural barriers to 
commerce and travel and to develop the natural resources 
of the State. 

18 Draining the land by means of ditches in the country 

and sewers in the cities. 

Explanation. A large proportion of the richest farm- 
ing land is naturally so wet that it cannot be cultivated. 
Olten it is impossible for the individual farmer to get an 
outlet for drainage except across tracts of land which 
he does not own. It has been found profitable for the 
people to co-operate through their government in provid- 
ing outlets for drainage. In cities, where ordinary ditches 
have become underground sewers, this co-operation is 
absolutely necessary because the sewers not only drain 
the land but carry away the liquid wastes from every j 
house. Any lack of co-operation in the performance of I 
this service would immediately render the conditions of 
city life dangerous to health. 

19 Furnishing the people with water and some other 

common necessities, and giving them access to 
sunlight, fresh -air and room where the conditions 
of life tend to limit the bounties of nature. 

Explanation. In great cities the government often 
undertakes to bring water from the mountains for the 
people's use. The water supply of the boroughs of 



34 GOVERNMENT 



Manhattan and the Bronx in Greater New York amount- 
ing to 225,000,000 of gallons a day, is brought a dis- 
tance of about forty miles In cities the government 
furnishes parks and playgrounds also, in order that the 
people may have a chance to get sunlight, fresh air and 
recreation. In'some cities of America and in many cities 
of Europe the government supplies gas or electricity 
to the people, and all cities both here and abroad light 
the streets on dark nights. 

20 Preservation of the natural resources of the country 

by protecting the forests, the fisheries and the 
game. 

Explanation. The cutting down of forests may 
greatly change the climate. There is usually much more 
drouth after the forests have disappeared. Besides this, 
fuel becomes scarce, and lumber for building houses and 
making furniture is not to be had. Hence the State 
attempts to preserve forests and to prevent the waste of 
wood and the destruction of the soil by forest fires. In 
like manner, game and fish are protected from hunters 
and fishermen during certain parts of the year, so that 
the natural food supply of the people may not be entirely 
destroyed. 

21 Collection of statistics by means of a census taken at 

regular periods, and assessment of the property of 
individuals for purposes of taxation. 

Explanation. The National Government takes a 
census every ten years in the year whose number is 
divisible by ten. The State of New York takes a census 
every ten years in the year whose number ends with " 5." 
In the city of New York a school census is taken every 
second yearto determine the number of children of school 
age living in the different parts of the city. Property is 
usually assessed for taxation every year. The collection 
of statistics is of great importance to the government in' 
the determination of its own policies, and is of use to the 
people whenever they wish to study social problems. 

22 Raising Revenue for the expenses of government in 



THE STATE 35 



performing the functions entrusted to it by the 
people. 

Explanation, Most of the money received by the 
government comes from taxation, which is the forcible 
Liking of a portion of the property owned by individuals, 
'faxes should be levied according to uniform rules, and 
for public purposes. The State depends for its revenues 
chiefly on the general property tax, the theory of the 
law being that all citizens should pay taxes in proportion 
to their wealth. As a matter of fact, the laws are imper- 
fect and in many cases not well enforced, so that much 
property escapes direct taxation. In New York State a 
large revenue is derived from taxes upon corporations 
and upon inheritances, as well as from the liquor tax. 
In cities especially, the government receives a great deal 
of money from the sale of water, from the sale of fran- 
chises, from the leasing of docks, ferries, land, etc., and 
from tolls, fees and fines. 



2 The Organization of Government in the State 

The public business which we have just described 
is not all of equal interest to the people in all parts of the 
State. One of the main features of American liberty is 
our system of local self-government, by which the 
people of cities, counties and neighborhoods choose 
their own officers to carry on the public business, and, in 
many cases, determine how the laws of the State shall be 
carried out. As a result of our system, the government 
is divided into central and local authorities. The central 
authorities represent the people of the whole State and 
perform their functions from the State capital. The local 
authorities are chosen by the people of the several coun- 
ties, towns, school districts, villages, cities, and other 
local divisions, and perform their part of the public func- 



36 QO VERNMENT 



tions in the localities where they have been chosen. 
There is no hard and fast division between the business 
attended to by the central government and that attended 
to by the local governments. But in general, the local 
authorities have charge of those functions which are deter- 
mined by local physical conditions, the functions which 
have to do with the land, such as water supply, drainage, 
bridges, roads, etc. On the other hand, the central authori- 
ties generally perform those functions which affect the 
rights and duties of the people as a whole. Thus the 
laws governing elections, property, marriage, crime, 
etc., are made and to a great extent executed by the 
central Slate government. There are many functions 
which are performed by local authorities as direct or 
indirect agents of the central government. The keep- 
ing of public order, the education of the children, the 
protection of public health, and many other public duties 
are so performed. 



3 The Central State Government 

The constitution of New York establishes the 
central government and describes its organization. Like 
the National Government, it is divided into three great 
departments, which respectively exercise the legislative, 
the executive and the judicial powers. 

(i) THE LEGISLATIVE POWER 

The legislative power of the State is vested in the 
Senate and Assembly. The Senate is composed of fifty 
members elected by single districts, which may be 



THE STATE 37 



changed once in ten years after the State census by act 
of the Legislature. The senate districts must be as nearly 
equal in population, not counting aliens, as possible, but 
no county can be divided in the formation of Senate 
districts unless two or more districts are to be wholly 
included within that county. New York County con- 
tains twelve senate districts. The Assembly is composed 
of one hundred and fifty members chosen by single dis- 
tricts. Every county is entitled to at least one as- 
semblyman, except that Fulton and Hamilton Counties 
have one together. The assemblymen are apportioned 
to the several counties by the Legislature, according to 
the population. The counties having more than one 
assemblyman are divided into assembly districts by their 
boards of supervisors. Senators are elected for two 
years and assemblymen for one year. The Legislature, 
composed of Senate and Assembly, meets every year on 
the first day of January. No person can be chosen 
as a member of the Legislature who has been, within one 
hundred days before the election, a member of Congress 
or a civil or military officer under the National Govern- 
ment or any city government. The Legislature enacts 
laws, and makes provision for raising and spending the 
State moneys, but whenever a bill is passed involving 
taxation, the creation of a public debt, or the expendi- 
ture of public money, it requires three-fifths of all the 
members elected to Senate and Assembly to make 
a quorum. The Legislature is forbidden to pass special 
and local bills for certain purposes, such as changing a 
person's name, laying out a street, incorporating a village, 
granting a franchise, etc. In regard to such matters. 



38 GOVERNMENT 



general laws must be passed in accordance with which 
individual cases will be settled. Bills passed by the 
Legislature may be vetoed by the Governor. They may 
be passed over the veto by an affirmative vote of two- 
thirds of all the members of each house. And many 
of the Governor's appointments to public office are subject 
to the approval of the senate. Each branch of the Legis- 
lature adopts its own rules of procedure and elects its 
own officers, except that the Senate is presided over by 
the Lieutenant Governor. Each senator and assembly- 
man receives an annual salary of $1,500. 

(2) THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT 

The executive power of the State is vested in the 
Governor and the Lieutenant Governor, who are elected 
by the people at the election which takes place in every 
even-numbered year. To be eligible to either of these 
offices a man must be a citizen of the United States, at 
least thirty years of age, and resident of the State for at 
least five years preceding his election. The Governor is 
commander-in-chief of the State's military forces, and is 
charged with the execution of all the laws of the State. 
He must send messages to the Legislature at every ses- 
sion, and may call extraordinary sessions at any time. 
The Governor may grant pardons or reprieves to persons 
convicted of crime. All 'bills which have passed the 
Legislature must be presented to him for his signature. 
If he vetoes them he must return them to the Legislature 
with his objections where they may be passed over his 
veto by a two-thirds vote. If the Governor does not 
return any bill with his veto inside of ten days, not 
counting Sundays, the bill becomes a law as if he had 



THE STATE 39 



signed it. But if the Legislature has adjourned before 
the ten days are out, no bill can become a law without 
the Governor's approval. He is allowed thirty days 
after the adjournment of each legislative session to 
examine bills' that have been passed during the last ten 
days of the session. The Lieutenant Governor presides 
over the Senate and succeeds to the office of Governor 
in case of a vacancy for any reason. The Governor is 
not nearly so powerful an officer in the State govern- 
ment as the President is in the National Government. 
The Governor has no cabinet. In place of the cabinet 
officers there are several officers elected by the people 
every second year who are quite independent of the 
Governor in the performance of their duties. These are 
the Secretary of State, the Comptroller, the Treasurer, 
the Attorney-General, and the State Engineer and 
Surveyor. The Governor, however, has the power to 
appoint, subject to the Senate's approval, a number of 
important officers. Among these are the Superintendent 
of Public Works, the Excise Commissioner, the State 
Superintendent of Elections for the Metropolitan Elections 
District, the Superintendent of State Prisons and the 
members of the State Board of Charities, the Com- 
mission in Lunacy and the Commission of Prisions. 
Subordinate appointments and promotions in the civil 
service of the State have to be made in accordance with 
merit and fitness, determined, so far as possible, by 
competitive examinations. 

(3) THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT 

The judicial power of the State is vested in the courts 
of law. The highest court is the Court for the Trial of Im- 
peachments which is composed of the President of the 
Senate, the Senators and the Judges of the Court of Ap- 



40 GOVERNMENT 



peals, and is organized only when some public officer has 
been impeached by the Assembly. The highest perma- 
nent court is the Court of Appeals which, in most States, 
would be called the Supreme Court. This is composed of 
a chief judge and six associate judges, all elected for 
terms of fourteen years, by the people of the whole State. 
This court has no original jurisdiction, but hears appeals 
from the decisions of the Supreme Court in which the 
most important civil and criminal cases must first be tried. 
The Supreme Court consists ofjudges elected by the people 
in eight separate districts of the State. New York County 
constitutes' the first judicial district, and has seven- 
teen judges besides those of the appellate division. The 
State is furthermore divided into four departments in each 
of which there is an appellate division of the Supreme 
Court. The judges of the appellate divisions are 
designated by the Governor from the elected judges. 
New York County, besides being the first judicial 
district, is also the first judicial department, and 
has seven judges in the appellate division. County 
courts and surrogates' courts are established in most 
of the counties, and justices of the peace are elected 
in the towns. Inferior local courts for cities may be 
established by the Legislature. It should be noticed that 
the judicial system of the State government is quite dif- 
ferent from that of the National Government in that 
National judges are appointed by the President for life, 
while State judges, in New York, are elected by the 
people for a term of years. 



THE COUNTY \\ 



4 Rural Local Government 

There is some provision for local self-government in 
all the States of the Union, but the systems are not the 
same everywhere. In New England and New Jersey, 
the town is the most important local division, while in 
the southern and western States the county is the most 
important. In the Middle States, New York, Pennsyl- 
vania and the States just west of these, the county and 
the town or township are both important divisions. 
The New York system of local government is sometimes 
called the " supervisor system," and it has been copied 
by Michigan, Wisconsin and a few other States. It is 
necessary to take up local government in the country 
and local government in cities separately, because the 
conditions of life and the needs of the people are so dif- 
ferent that the forms and functions of the government are 
quite dissimilar. In the State of New York the ordinary 
divisions for local government in the country are called 
counties, towns, school districts and villages. 

(i) THE COUNTY 

The largest of the ordinary local divisions of the State 
is the county. New York has sixty counties, but they are 
very unequal in size and population. In the mountainous 
and infertile parts of the State, which are suited neither to 
agriculture nor to manufacturing and commerce, the 
population is much more scattered than elsewhere, and 
for that reason the counties have been made larger. But 
the general system of government is the same in all the 
counties, large or small, except New York, Kings and 
Richmond, which are wholly included within the city of 



42 government 



New York. We find the same general division among 
legislative, executive and judicial authorities in the county 
governments as in the central State government, except 
that the separation of powers is not quite so clear-cut. The 
legislative, executive and judicial powers are exercised in 
counties by the Boards of Supervisors, the county execu- 
tive officers, and the county courts, respectively. 

a The Hoard of Supervisors is composed of one 
supervisor elected by each town included within the 
county. Generally the wards of cities are considered 
as towns for the election of supervisors. Supervisors 
are elected every second year at the regular town meet- 
ings in the towns. In the cities supervisors are elected 
at the regular city elections. The Board of Supervisors 
must meet annually, and may hold special meetings. 
The Board may make rules for the conduct of business 
at board meetings, and impose penalties, not exceeding 
fifty dollars for each offense, for violation of rules. The 
Boards of Supervisors are given certain legislative powers 
in their respective counties. They are authorized to levy 
taxes and to borrow money on the county's credit up to 
an amount equal to ten per cent of the assessed value of 
real estate in the county. The supervisors may also 
authorize towns to borrow money. The supervisors 
have charge of the buildings, land and other property 
belonging to the county, and may purchase sites for new 
county buildings, and erect court houses, jails, alms- 
houses, asylums, etc. It is the Board of Supervisors also 
which is charged with the division of towns or the 
change of town boundaries, and the division of the coun- 
ties into assembly districts where that is necessary. The 



THE COUNTY 43 



supervisors may pass laws for the destruction of wild 
animals and noxious weeds. They may construct 
county roads and bridges, or help towns to pay the 
expense of building bridges. They may also erect 
public monuments to the soldiers of the late w r ar or to 
other public persons or events. The Boards of Super- 
visors of the counties have other less important powers 
and duties which are not always the same in all the 
counties owing to the passage of special acts by the State 
Legislature. In the counties of New York, Kings and 
Richmond the Boards of Supervisors are composed of the 
members of the Municipal Assembly of New York City, 
elected in those counties respectively. The duties of the 
supervisors in these three counties are the division of 
the counties into assembly districts when that is neces- 
sary and the canvassing of the votes for county officers. 

b The Comity Executive Officers. In the county there 
is no single officer like the President of the United States, 
the Governor of the State or the Mayor of a city, in whom 
is vested the general executive power. The executive 
officers are, in most counties, 

A County Treasurer, 

A County Clerk, 

A Sheriff, 

A District Attorney, 

Four Coroners, 

One or Three Superintendents of the Poor, 
all elected by the people for terms of three years. The 
County Treasurer receives all moneys belonging to the 
county as well as the county's share of the State taxes. 
He is required to report to the Board of Supervisors and 



44 GOVERNMENT 



to the State Comptroller. He designates the banks in 
which the county funds shall be deposited, and he 
draws money from the deposits for payment of legal 
appropriations and for the salaries of county officers. 
There is no treasurer for Richmond County, and the 
duties of treasurer are imposed upon the controller of 
New York City. The Chamberlain of New York City, 
appointed by the mayor for four years, is the treasurer of 
New York County. 

The County Clerk has the custody of public doc- 
uments. He reports to the Governor when there are 
vacancies in county offices and reports annually to the 
Secretary of State a list of the corporations which 
have filed certificates in the county during the previ- 
ous year. The County Clerk also sends certificates 
of election to persons chosen to public offices, gives 
public notices, and performs other duties required of him 
by law. In New York County the County Clerk is 
chosen for a term of four years. In Kings County the term 
of office of County Clerk is two years. In each of these 
counties also there is a Register chosen for the same term 
as the County Clerk who is charged with recording deeds 
and other documents, thus relieving the Clerk of one of 
his most arduous duties. 

The Sheriff has charge of the county jail and is 
the principal officer of the county for the arrest and 
detention of criminals. If he has trouble in catching 
criminals he may call upon able-bodied citizens to 
help him make arrests and the citizens so summoned 
form a company which is called the posse comiiatus. 
The Sheriff appoints an under-sheriff or deputy. In 
the counties of New York and Kings the sheriffs are 
elected every two years. 



THE COUNTY 45 



The District Attorney is the public prosecutor. 
He is charged with the duty of securing evidence, 
investigating complaints and bringing to justice all 
criminals, including all public officers who refuse or 
neglect to do their duty or misuse their powers. Some- 
times a District Attorney neglects to bring to trial 
persons who have been indicted. Under such conditions 
the office may be made an engine for the defence of guilty 
men who are the personal or political friends of the 
District Attorney. This officer is elected for a term of 
four years in New York County. 

The Coroners are public officers who hold inquests 
over the bodies of persons who have died under suspicious 
circumstances. It is their duty to determine whether the 
person whose body is examined died a natural death or 
was murdered, and if murdered, then by what means and 
by whom, if that is clear. In the City of New York 
Coroners are elected by boroughs, rather than by counties 
and serve for the same terms as the sheriffs of the 
respective counties. 

The Superintendents of the Poor, whose duties in 
the City of New York are performed by the Department of 
Public Charities, generally have charge of the county 
almshouses and the granting of poor relief within their 
respective counties. They have to determine whether 
or not applicants for relief belong in some other county. 
In New York and Kings Counties there are county 
officers known as the Public Administrator and the 
Commissioner of Jurors. Any of these county officers 
may be removed by the Governor of the State for good 
cause after having been accused and given an opportunity 
for defense. 

c 'The Comity Judiciary. In all the counties ex- 
cept New York, there is a County Court, held by the 
County Judge, who is elected for a term of six years. 
In Kings County there are two county judges. The county 



4 6 GOVERNMENT 



courts have jurisdiction over civil and criminial cases 
arising in the several counties. In about half of the 
counties there is a separate court held by a judge called a 
Surrogate, elected for a term of six years. In New York 
County there are two surrogates elected for a term of four- 
teen years. The surrogates' courts are charged with the 
hearing of wills, the appointment of executors to settle 
up the estates of deceased persons and the appointment 
of guardians for minors and persons mentally inca- 
pacitated. In the County of New York, in place of the 
regular county court, there is a Court of General 
Sessions held by the Recorder, the City Judge, and three 
Judges of General Sessions, elected by the people for 
terms of fourteen years. 

(2) THE TOWN 

The town is, in most States, the smallest unit of 
local self-government for general purposes. The number 
of towns in each county, not included in New York City, 
varies from four or five to thirty or thirty-five. There 
are more than 900 towns in the State. The whole ter- 
ritory of the State, except that v/hich is included in in- 
corporated cities, is divided into towns. The organiza- 
tion of the town government provides for a general 
separation of authorities for the exercise of the legislative, 
the executive and the judicial powers. 

a The Town Meeting is the assemblage of all the 
electors of the town at one or more public places for the 
transaction of town business. A regular town meeting 
is held every two years in the spring on a day fixed by 
the State law or by the county boards of supervisors. 



THE TOWN 



47 



Whenever twenty-five tax payers desire it, a special 
town meeting may be held to decide as to raising money 
for the poor, for bridges or for other purposes, or to vote 
upon any proposition which may be submitted to a town 
meeting. If, on account of the size of the town or the 
large number of its inhabitants, the electors find it in- 
convenient to meet in one place, the tov/n meeting may 
be held in two or more election districts or joint election 
districts at the same time. Whenever the town meet- 
ing is held in one place, the justices of the peace preside. 
Where the town meeting is held in more than one place, 
election inspectors are chosen to preside at each place 
of meeting. The town meeting, among other things, 
elects the town officers, passes local by-laws for the de- 
struction of noxious weeds and animals, establishes 
public pounds and makes rules to govern the town's 
corporate property. The election of officers is by ballot. 
For purposes of voting the town meeting is kept open 
from sunrise to sunset, and may be adjourned to the 
following day, but no longer. For registering and count- 
ing the votes for town officers the Myers' automatic 
ballot cabinet may be used. No ballot can be taken 
except for the election of officers unless an application 
has been filed with the town clerk at least twenty days 
before the town meeting, stating the exact question to 
be voted on. The town cleric is required to give at least 
ten days' public notice of the question upon which a bal- 
lot is to be taken. All other town business is considered 
in open meeting beginning at noon and continuing till 
the business is disposed of; but no question involving 
the expenditure of money can be introduced after two 



48 GOVERNMENT 



o'clock in the afternoon. Whenever the town meeting 
is held in separate places, all questions must be sub- 
mitted to the vote of the electors assembled at each place, 
one week's notice having been given. The vote is taken 
by division, and the number voting for and against each 
proposition is recorded; so that it may be afterwards 
determined whether a majority of the electors assembled 
in the different places have voted in the affirmative or the 
negative. The town meeting is the legislative authority 
of the town, and in addition to the powers already 
mentioned, it may provide for the erection of a town- 
house, or a lock-up, may choose trustees for the town 
burial grounds, and may determine in certain cases the 
number of town officers to be elected. 

b The Town Executive Officers are generally 

A Supervisor, 

A Town Clerk, 

Three Assessors, 

A Collector, 

One or two Overseers of the Poor, 

One, two or three Highway Commissioners, 

Not more than five Constables, 

Four Inspectors of Election for each election 
district in the town. 
All of these officers, except two of the Inspectors, are 
elected by the town meeting for a term of two years. 
Two of the four Inspectors are appointed by the presiding 
officer at the town meeting, so that each of the two , 
leading political parties shall have half of the inspectors. 
The Supervisor is the chief executive officer of the town, 
and is its representative on the county board of super- 



THE TOWN 49 



visors. The Town Clerk has charge of the town records. 
These two officers and the Justices of the Peace form the 
town board, whose duty it is to hold at least two meetings 
annually. At these meetings, the town board audits all 
claims which may be presented against the town. 
However, the electors of any town may elect a special 
board of three auditors to do this work. The Assessors 
and the Commissioners of Highways together act as 
fence viewers to decide disputes betv/een persons as to 
the building and repair of partition fences. The Com- 
missioners of Highways have charge of the road work, 
and may divide the town into districts and appoint an 
overseer of highways in each district. The town 
officers have to take an oath of office and most of 
them have to give bonds for the faithful performance 
of their duties. As a rule, they are paid two dollars 
a day for the time they actually spend in the public 
service. 

c The Town Judiciary is composed in most cases 
of four Justices of the Peace elected at the town meet- 
ing, two every second year for a term of four years. 
The justices' courts have jurisdiction over most civil 
cases involving small amounts, generally less than $200. 
The Justices of the Peace also hold courts of special 
sessions in which they have jurisdiction for the trial of 
misdemeanors, or minor criminal offenses. The justices' 
courts sometimes have juries and sometimes not, 
according to the demands of the parties to the suit. In 
cities, provision is made by special act for the election 
of Justices of the Peace or the choice of other judicial 
officers with similar functions. 



5 o GOVERNMENT 



(3) THE SCHOOL DISTRICT 

There have been established in the several counties 
of the State, outside of incorporated cities, what are called 
School Commissioners' Districts. Any school commis- 
sioner's district which contains more than one hundred 
school districts may be divided by the county board of 
supervisors. A school commissioner is elected in each 
school commissioner's district for a period of three years. 
This officer has the power to divide the territory over 
which he has jurisdiction into a convenient number of 
school districts for the purpose of maintaining public 
schools, building school houses, levying school taxes, 
etc. Joint School Districts may be established by 
agreement of two or more commissioners. Besides these, 
Union Free School Districts may be established by vote 
of the electors of several districts. Union districts are 
usually established in villages and thickly populated 
parts of the country, and each has a Board of Education, 
elected by the people, to have charge of the union free 
schools. Like the town, the school district has a meet- 
ing of the electors and certain executive officers. The 
following description applies primarily to the common 
school districts, which makeup about eight-ninths of the 
whole number. 

a The School Meeting is held annually in each district 
on the first Tuesday of August, generally in the evening. 
Special meetings may be held from time to time. Men 
and women have equal voting rights at the school meet- 
ing. The electors include persons of full age, citizens of 
the United States, who have lived for thirty days in the 



T HE SCHOOL DISTRICT 51 

district and ov/n taxable real estate or fifty dollars' worth 
of taxable personal property or who are parents of chil- 
dren that have attended the district school for at least 
eight weeks during the preceding year, or persons who 
have such children living with them. The school meet- 
ing elects the district officers, determines on sites for 
school buildings, fixes the amount of bonds to be re- 
quired of the collector and treasurer, votes taxes for 
school sites and buildings, for the purchase of school 
supplies, or a school library, and decides other ques- 
tions submitted to it. It is the duty of all voters of the 
school district to attend the school meetings. Some of 
the decisions of the school meeting are subject to the 
approval of the school commissioner. 

b The Officers of the School District are : 

One or three Trustees, as the electors may decide, 

A District Clerk, 

A Collector, and in some cases 

A Treasurer, 
all elected by the voters at the school meeting. If there 
are three trustees, they hold office for three years, one 
being chosen annually. The district clerk keeps the rec- 
ords of the district, gives notices, calls special meetings 
when instructed to do so by the trustees, and performs other 
similar duties. The treasurer, if the school meeting decides 
to have such a district officer, has charge of the school 
moneys. The trustees are, however, the most important of 
the school district officers. They are a body corporate and 
have charge of the school house and other district property. 
They hire teachers, levy school taxes, make annual re- 
ports to the district meeting and to the school commis- 
sioner, and, in general, carry out the decisions of the 
district meeting and perform the duties required of them 



$a Q OVERNMEXT _________ 

by the laws of the State. They may also adopt rules 
and regulations concerning the discipline of the schools, 
the course of study, etc. Special provision must be 
made for teaching physiology and hygiene, with partis 
ular reference to the effects of the use of intoxicating 
liquor, tobacco and oi.hcr stimulants. 

c The Schools are free to all children residing 
within the district and between the ages of five and 
twenty-one years. Others ;jay be admitted by the 
trustees on condition of their paying tuition fees. No 
one is qualified to teach who does not hold a diploma 
from a State normal school or a certificate of qualification 
given by the State superintendent of public instruction 
or the school commissioner of the district. Schools are. 
in most districts, closed during the sessions of teachers' 
institutes, of which at least one must be held every year 
in each school commissioner's district. Teachers are 
required to attend them, and school trustees are compell- 
ed to pay the teachers regular wages during such at- 
tendance. All children between the ages of eight and 
fourteen years and all children who are not at work 
between the ages of fourteen and sixteen years are re- 
quired to attend the public school, If they are physically 
and mentally competent, unless they receive an equiva- 
lent of instruction at a private school or with a private 
teacher. Required instruction includes the common 
school branches of reading, writing, spelling,, arithmetic, 
English grammar and geography. The general school 
system of the State is under the supervision of the State 
superintendent of public instruction. 



THE VILL AGE <$ $ 

(4) THE VILLAGE 

In some States there are no villages, but what cor- 
responds to the village is called a borough or an incor- 
porated town. In New York the village is a community 
within one or more towns, and is specially incorporated 
on petition of the inhabitants either under the general 
village law or by special act of the Legislature. At the 
present time, however, the constitution forbids the 
Legislature to incorporate any new village by special act, 
though village charters already existing may be amended 
or revised in that way. The result is that there is little 
uniformity in village government in the State of New 
York. Villages are generally organized, however, to 
satisfy the common needs of communities which have 
grown up as trading centers for the country population. 
In these centers people live pretty close together, and so 
have some of the needs of city people in a small way, as, 
for example, fire protection, side walks, and perhaps a 
common supply of water. The village government, 
unlike the government of cities, does not supersede in all 
things the town government over the territory included 
in the village, but is supplementary to it. Most cities of 
the State were first incorporated as villages, and got 
their city charters only after their population had in- 
creased to, perhaps, 8,000 or 10,000. Many years ago 
provision was generally made in village charters for 
meetings of the electors similar to town meetings. Now 
the people elect the village officers and vote upon certain 
questions in regard to taxation and expenditure submit- 
ted to them, but do not ordinarily have open public meet- 



$4 GOVERNMENT 



ings for the transaction of business and the passage of 
by-laws. The officers of the village are usually a Board 
of Trustees, consisting of three or more members, 
according to the size of the village, a President, a Treas- 
urer, a Clerk, a Collector and a Street Commisioner, all 
elected by the people for terms of one or two years. The 
President is chairman of the board of trustees and has a 
vote on all questions considered by them. The Trustees 
are really the village legislature, and they have power to 
pass by-laws and ordinances on a great variety of sub- 
jects relating to the common needs of the village com- 
munity. These ordinances have to do especially with 
the use of the streets, the protection of public peace and 
order, and the undertaking of common services such as 
fire protection, sewage disposal, public lighting, water 
supply, provision of public cemeteries, etc. The Trustees 
act as assessors for the village, and must levy the village 
taxes upon property within the village subject to taxation. 
The President of the village, besides presiding over the 
board of trustees, is the chief executive officer, and is 
charged with the execution of the village laws and the 
maintenance of the village peace. In villages having a 
considerable population the trustees may decide to have 
a Police Justice elected at the annual village election. 
The Police Justice is a special judicial officer whose chief 
function is to decide cases involving the violation of 
village ordinances. He corresponds to the city magis- 
trates of New York City. In general, it may be said that 
villages are little cities in the process of formation, and 
that village government, like city government, is far from 
uniform and adapts itself to local needs and local condi- 
tions. In the villages the conditions of city life are begin- 



THE CITY ;e 



ningto be felt, but the smallness of the community an J its 
close relations to the surrounding country population 
prevent the villages from being entirely separated from 
the ordinary rural government of the towns. 



5 City Government 

In districts which have a compact population of 
more than 8,000 or 10,000 the conditions of life and com- 
mon needs of the people are so different from rural con- 
ditions and needs, that a special form of local govern- 
ment is generally organized which supersedes, for the 
most part, the town government, and to some extent, the 
county government. This new form of government is 
called a city, and the law governing it is almost always 
a special act of the Legislature called a charter. Under 
our American system of local self-government the city, 
which is a full fledged municipal corporation, has a 
double position. Like the county officers, its officers 
are agents of the central government so far as the execu- 
tion of State laws is concerned. But in distinction from 
the county, the city has a much wider sphere of action 
on its own account, that is, in reference to local needs. 
This is because the local needs of a city, arising from the 
crowding of many people into a small district, are much 
greater than the local needs of the county. Owing to 
the size and importance of New York City, we shall 
have to treat it with special fulness, after having briefly 
discussed the general system of city government in the 
State, 



5 4 'GOVERNMENf 



(i) THE CITIES CF NEW YORK STATE IN GENERAL 

The cities of New York State are incorporated by 
special acts of the Legislature, and that body may repeal 
or amend their charters at any time. Asa matter of fact, 
however, the charter of a city is never repealed except 
when a new one is granted or the city is to be consolida- 
ted with some other city. All of the charters provide 
for a City Council, generally composed of one body but 
sometimes of two. This council, usually called the Com- 
mon Council, is the local legislative body of the city. 
There is also, in every city, a chief executive officer called 
the Mayor, elected by the people. There are various 
other executive officers, boards and commissions to take 
charge of particular lines of municipal business accord- 
ing to the needs of the several cities. In many cities, 
provision has been made for a City or Municipal Court, 
besides the regular local courts. There are, in almost 
every city, one or more Police Courts held by a Police 
Justice or other special judicial officer who tries petty 
offenders without a jury and inflicts fines and short 
terms of imprisonment upon disorderly persons, vag- 
rants, etc. The power possessed by the Legislature to 
amend city charters at pleasure has sometimes resulted 
in a troublesome limitation of " home rule" or local self- 
government. The new State Constitution, adopted in 
1 394, attempted to protect the cities in some degree 
against the Legislature. The constitution provided that 
any special city measure, that is, any bill introduced into' 
the Legislature affecting only one city or any less than 
all the cities in a given class, should, if passed by the 
Legislature, be submitted to the mayor or the mayor and 



TUB CiT? $7 



council of each city affected, for their approval. If these 
city officers should refuse to accept the proposed meas- 
ure, the Legislature would have to pass the bill a second 
time before it could be signed by the governor and be- 
come a law. It was believed that in this way publicity 
would be obtained for all city measures, and public 
opinion could be brought to bear upon the Legislature to 
prevent the passage of bad Jaws. The cities of New 
York State are divided by the constitution into three 
classes. In the first class are all cities of more than 
250,000 population; in the second class are all of more 
than 50,000 and less than 250,000; and in the third 
class are all of less than 50,000. There are at present 
thirty-nine cities in the State, divided among the three 
classes as follows : 

First Class, New York City and Buffalo. 

Second Class, Rochester, Syracuse, Albany and Troy 

Third Class, Amsterdam, Auburn, Binghamton, 
Cohoes, Corning, Dunkirk, Elmira, Genesee, Glovers- 
ville, Hornel'sville, Hudson, Ithaca, Jamestown, Johns- 
town, Kingston, Little Falls, Lockport, Middletowa 
Mount Vernon, Newburgh, Niagara Falls, North Tona- 
wanda, Ogdensburg, Olean, Oswego, Poughkeepsie, 
Rensselaer, Rome, Schenectady, Utica, Watertown, 
Watervliet and Yonkers. 

Brooklyn, Williamsburg, and Long Island City once 
separately incorporated, are now included in New York 
City. The importance of the city governments of the State 
may be seen from the fact that in 1890, more than half 
(57.57 per cent) of the population lived in cities. Begin- 
ning with 1898, almost half of the whole population of 
the State live within the single city of Mew York. 



5§ GOVERNMENT 



(2) THE CITY OF NEW YORK 

In 1652, New York City, then called New Amster- 
dam, v/as a little Dutch settlement of about 1,000 people, 
on the southern end of Manhattan Island. At that time, 
the people first received municipal privileges, that is, 
a city government was established. New York City 
came under the rule of the English in 1664, and of course, 
became a part of the free State of New York when 
American independence was declared in 1776. After the 
War of the Revolution, the city began to grow rapidly in 
numbers and in wealth. New York harbor has served 
as the gate-way for the commerce of Europe with the 
United States, and for that reason the city has for a cen- 
tury been the commercial and financial metropolis of 
America. The territory of Manhattan Island was much 
too small to accommodate all of the people who wished 
to do business in New York. So the people began to 
settle, in large numbers, on Long Island, in New Jersey, 
on the mainland north of Harlem River and on 
Staten Island. In course of time (1854), the people living 
opposite New York on Long Island organized a city and 
named it Brooklyn. In 1870, another was organized 
under the name of Long Island City The people living 
on the west side of the Hudson in New Jersey organized 
themselves into cities and towns, including Jersey City, 
Hoboken and Newark. The people on the north and 
east of the Harlem River formed towns and villages 
which were annexed to New York City, a part in 1873 
and another part in 1895. The people living on Staten 
Island formed the county of Richmond, including in its 



THE CITY 59 



limits several towns and villages. There v/as no provi- 
sion for a local government to look after the unified in- 
terests of this whole great industrial community. Citi- 
zens began to think that a city ought to include in its 
boundaries the whole population whose local interests 
are one, that is, that the natural boundaries of the com- 
munity should be the boundaries of the city. Out of this 
idea came the establishment of the present City of New 
York, the "Greater New York," as it is called. It v/as 
impossible to consolidate the New Jersey cities with 
those in New York because, under our system of govern- 
ment, a city cannot include parts of two separate States. 
But so far as possible, the new charter has brought under 
one city government the people of the metropolitan dis- 
trict. This huge city is now the second city of the 
world and its population exceeds that of several States 
combined. It covers a land area of about 307 square 
miles which is equal to the combined area of eight or 
nine western townships, or a solid square of land seven- 
teen and a half miles on each side. 

In order to understand the government of the city, 
we shall take it up under the four heads, Local Divis- 
ions, Legislative Power, Executive Power and City 
Judiciary. 

LOCAL ^DIVISIONS 

1 The Local 'Divisions of the city are boroughs, 
council districts, senate and local improvement districts, 
assembly and aldermanic districts, judicial districts and 
wards. Besides these divisions, there are numerous 



6o GOVERNMENT 



others for the purpose of administrative convenience, 
such as election districts, dock districts, police precincts, 
fire alarm districts, and districts for street cleaning, sani- 
tary and building inspection and school inspection. Wc- 
need to discuss only the principal divisions. 

(i) The 'Boroughs 

There are five boroughs — 
Manhattan, including Manhattan Island and adjoining 

islands in the East River and the Upper Bay, 
Richmond, or-Staten Island, 
Brooklyn, or Kings County, 
Queens, including Long Island City, and the other parts 

of Queens County, lying within the limits of New 

York City. 
The Bronx is that part of the city which is on the 

mainland north and east of the Harlem River. 

All of the other boroughs are on islands. 
The boroughs have not been established with the 
idea of making districts of equal population, but rather 
for the purpose of preserving natural and historic bound- 
aries. The boroug h s do not have much power of local 
self-government, but are important divisions for adminis- 
tration in the various city departments. Each borough, 
however, elects a borough President and Coroners. The 
President is really a local commissioner of public works, 
with very limited powers, and his duty is to look after 
the interests of his borough and represent them as a 
member of the city Board of ^Public Improvements. The 
Coroners have the same general duties as county 
coroners in other parts of the State. [See page 45].. 
Most of the city administrative departments must have 
k>cal offices in each of the five boroughs, 



THE CITY 6 1 



(2) The Council Districts 

The council districts are ten in number, there 
being four in the borough of Manhattan, three in 
Brooklyn, and one in each of the other boroughs. These 
districts are of no importance except for the election of 
members of the council once in four years. 

(3) Senate and Local Improvement Districts 

Of the fifty senate districts into which the State of 
New York is divided, nineteen lie wholly within the city 
of New York and three others lie partly within the city. 
Each senate district or part of a senate district in the city 
is a local improvement district also. Of the twenty-two 
districts, seven are in Brooklyn, one in Queens, one in 
Richmond, eleven and a part in Manhattan and one and 
a part in the Bronx. For each local improvement dis- 
trict, there is a " local board" consisting of the president 
of the borough in which the district is situated and the 
members of the Municipal Assembly who live within the 
district. The local boards have not much real power, 
but they can hear and report to the proper authorities 
complaints in regard to nuisances in the streets, dis- 
orderly houses, the condition" of the poor, etc., in their 
respective districts. They may also recommend local 
improvements with reference to streets, sidewalks, 
street lamps, etc. 

(4) Assembly and cAldermanic Districts 

Of the 150 assembly districts into which the State 
is divided, fifty-eight are wholly within the limits of 
Nw/ York City and four more partly within it. The 
whole number of aljermanic districts is sixty, corre- 



62 GOVERNMENT 



sponding with the assembly districts, except in the 
boroughs of Queens and the Bronx. Of the sixty dis- 
tricts there are twenty-one in Brooklyn, one in Richmond, 
two in Queens, thirty-three and a part in Manhattan and 
two and a part in the Bronx. These districts have no 
powers of local government, but choose an alderman 
each, every two years. 

(5) Judicial Districts 

The city of New York is divided into two divisions 
for minor criminal court jurisdiction. The first division 
is composed of the boroughs of Manhattan and the 
Bronx, and the second division of the boroughs of 
Brooklyn, Queens and Richmond. In each of the divi- 
sions there is a court of special sessions and a board of 
city magistrates, appointed by the mayor. For minor 
civil court jurisdiction the city is divided into twenty- 
three judicial districts, in each of which a judge is elected 
once in ten years to be a member of the " municipal 
court." There are eleven districts in the borough of 
Manhattan, two in the Bronx, five in Brooklyn, three in 
Queens, and two in Richmond. 

(6) Wards 

In most cities the wards are divisions for the elec- 
tion of aldermen and, perhaps, other local officers. This 
used to be true in New York. But the population of the 
several wards finally came to be so unequal that new 
districts, the assembly or aldermanic districts, were 
made use of for popular representation. The wards of 
New York are now chiefly statistical divisions which are 
used in the population tables of the census and, to some 



THE CITY 63 



extent, in the assessment of real estate for taxation. In 
the borough of Queens a supervisor is elected by each 
ward to sit on the board of supervisors of Queens 
County. The wards in New York City are now num- 
bered by boroughs. There are twenty-two wards in 
the borough of Manhattan, two in the Bronx, thirty-two 
in Brooklyn, five in Queens and five in Richmond. 

LEGISLATIVE POWER 

2 The Legislative Tower of the city is vested in the 
Municipal Assembly, the Board of Public Improvement, 
the Board of Estimate and Apportionment, the Board of 
Health and other boards and officers at the head of 
several departments. It should always be kept in 
mind that the most important legislating for the city is 
done by the State Senate and Assembly which meet at 
Albany. But the bodies we have named have certain 
limited legislative powers within the city. 

(/) The Municipal Assembly 

The Municipal Assembly is called the city legislature. 
It is composed of two bodies, the Council and the Board 
of Aldermen. The Council or upper house of the Munic- 
ipal Assembly is made up of the President of the Council 
and twenty-eight councilmen. The President of the 
Council is elected every four years by the whole city, and 
besides acting as chairman of the Council, he is a member 
of the two most important boards of the city govern- 
ment. His salary is $5,000 a year and he stands ready 
to perform the duties of the mayor if the latter is dis- 
abled. The other councilmen receive an annual salary 



64 GOVERNMENT 



of $1,500 each and are elected every four years in 
the council districts. Three councilmen are chosen 
from each district, except that in Queens and Richmond 
only two councilmen are elected in each. Besides the 
regular councilmen, every ex-mayor of the city who has 
been mayor after the consolidation into Greater New 
York, if he still lives in the city, will have a seat in the 
Council with the right to discuss measures but without 
the right to vote. The Council has the election of a clerk 
who is also the city clerk. 

The City Clerk holds his office for six years and has 
a salary of $7,000 a year. He appoints a clerk for the 
board of aldermen. The City Clerk has charge of the 
seal of the city, and keeps the deeds and records. He 
keeps a record of the proceedings of the Council, and 
after each meeting of the Municipal Assembly, he is re- 
quired to prepare an abstract of resolutions introduced 
and recommendations made by committees, final pro- 
ceedings, etc., for publication in the City Record. The 
messages of the mayor and the reports of the heads of 
departments must be published in full. 

The Board of Alderman, or lower house of the Muni- 
cipal Assembly, is composed of sixty members elected once 
in two years by single districts. The salary of each alderman 
is $1000 a year. The chief officers of the several adminis- 
trative departments have the right to attend the meetings of 
the board of aldermen and to take part in discussion, but 
not to vote. Each house of the Municipal Assembly deter- 
mines the qualifications of its members subject to review 
by the courts. Members may be expelled subject to the 
same limitation by a two-thirds vote. The Municipal 
Assembly has all the powers conferred upon the city by 



THE CITY 65 



the charter or other laws, except those powers specific- 
ally granted to other local authorities. It may pass 
ordinances upon a great variety of subjects under con- 
ditions set forth in the charter. It requires a majority 
vote of all the members elected to each house, to pass an 
ordinance, and if the ordinance involves the creation of a 
debt, the expenditure of money or the grant of a franchise, 
a three-fourths vote is required. In case the mayor 
should veto an ordinance, it would require a two-thirds 
vote of both houses of the Municipal Assembly to pass it 
over his veto, or a five-sixths vote if the ordinance re- 
quired a three-fourths vote on first passage. Many of 
the ordinances must originate with the departments 
which they are intended to affect. All measures affect- 
ing the city's financial interests require the approval of 
the Board of Estimate and Apportionment, and all meas- 
ures affecting public works, the use of streets and 
bridges, etc., require the approval of the Board of Public 
Improvements. The Municipal Assembly is thus a body 
of very limited legislative powers. It has great obstruct- 
ive powers, but cannot affect much in a positive way, 
without the co-operation of the mayor and his subordin- 
ates. However, the Municipal Assembly is empowered 
and required "to see to the faithful execution of the laws 
and ordinances of the city," and may appoint special 
committees to investigate any departments of the city 
government at any time. 

(2) The 'Board of Public Improvements 

The Board of Public Improvements is composed 
partly of elective and partly of appointive officers. The 
elective members are the Mayor, the Controller and the 



66 GOVERNMENT 



Presidents of the five boroughs. But a President of a 
borough has no vote on the Board except when matters 
relating exclusively to his borough are being considered. 
The appointive members are the President of the Board, 
the Corporation Counsel and the six commissioners at 
the head of the departments of water supply, highways, 
street cleaning, sewers and public buildings, lighting and 
supplies, respectively. Thus there are ten members of 
the Board who may vote on general questions, while on 
local questions affecting a single borough the President of 
that borough may also vote. Therefore, eight out of a 
possible voting membership of eleven are appointees ot* 
the mayor. The Board of Public Improvements is re- 
quired to prepare all ordinances relating to the construc- 
tion, use and repair of the streets; to the waterworks; to 
public markets; to the laying of pipes in the streets, the 
transmission of gas, electricity, steam and pneumatic 
power and the lighting of public places; to the erection 
and repair of public buildings, except school houses, 
alms-houses, penitentiaries and police and fire station 
houses, to the rates of fare on the Brooklyn Bridge; and 
to the making of contracts. These ordinances have to 
be submitted to the Municipal Assembly which may 
approve or reject them, but has no power to amend them. 
The Board has general supervision of the six public 
improvement departments the heads of which are mem- 
bers of the Board. The President of the Board decides, 
in cases of dispute about any specific work, to which 
department the work is to be assigned. The Board of 
Public Improvements is a new part of New York City's 
government. A similar board has been tried with 
success, however, in the city of St. Louis. The object 



THE CITY 67 



of the Board is, of course, to unify the work of allied 
departments and to provide a practical and systematic 
body of rules and ordinances governing public works of 
all kinds. 

(3) The Board of Estimate and Apportionment 



This Board is composed of five members namely, 
the mayor, the controller, the president of the council, 
the corporation counsel and the president of the depart- 
ment of taxes and assessments. The first three are 
elected officers, and the last two are appointees of the 
mayor. Thus the mayor and his two appointees make a 
majority of the Board. The mayor presides at its meet- 
ings. It is the duty of the Board of Estimate and 
Apportionment to prepare the annual budget of the city, 
that is, to determine how much money each department 
of the city is to be allowed for carrying on its work and 
how much the Municipal Assembly must levy in taxes. 
The budget, when prepared by the Board, is submitted to 
a joint-meeting of the Municipal Assembly, which may, 
by a majority vote, cut down the amount of any item 
not fixed by law, but may not increase the amount of any 
item. If the mayor vetoes the action of the Municipal As- 
sembly in reducing the estimates, the amount fixed by the 
Board of Estimate and Apportionment will stand, unless 
the veto is overcome by a five-sixths vote of the joint- 
meeting ofthe Assembly. All ordinances for the issue of 
city bonds and the granting of street franchises require 
the approval ofthe Board by a recorded vote. 



68 GOVERNMENT 



{4) The Board of Health 

The Board of Health is composed of the President of 
the Police Board, the Health Officer of the Port of New 
York (appointed by the governor) and three health com- 
missioners appointed by the mayor, two of whom must 
be physicians. The health commissioner who is not a 
physician is the president of the Board of Health. This 
board makes the Sanitary Code of the city or body of 
health ordinances which govern the actions of the people. 
The code may be amended by the Board of Health, but 
the amendments will not take effect until they have 
been published in the City Record once a week for two 
successive weeks. 

(5 ) Other Boards and Officers having Legislative Powers 

Besides the authorities we have mentioned which 
have power to make general ordinances, there are 
s-veral heads of departments which have power to make 
ordinances to govern the people in their use of public 
conveniences, and by-laws and regulations to govern 
subordinate officers and employees of the city in their 
relations to the citizens. The Board of Education has 
the power to issue regulations defining the duties of the 
general school officers of the city and prescribing the 
mariner in which school buildings are to be used and 
cared for. The borough School Boards, however, ■ 
have still greater powers of regulation, concerning the 
actual undertaking, government and organization of the 
schools. 



THE CIT? 69 



The Park Board may issue ordinances governing 
the use of the parks and protecting them from injury. 
The Board of Docks may issue rules and regulations 
relating to the care and use of the wharves and other 
public property under its control. The Board of 
Buildings not only may adopt by-laws governing the 
work of the department, but may even in individual 
cases modify the application of the building laws passed 
by the State Legislature or the Municipal Assembly. 
The Board of Public Charities has authority to make 
rules governing the various institutions under its care. 
The Police Board and the Fire Commissioner maintain 
discipline among the policemen and firemen in accord- 
ance with delailed regulations issued to govern the 
actions of these officers. 

EXECUTIVE TOWER 

3 The Executive Power of the city is vested in the 
mayor, or chief executive, and the officers of the depart- 
ments. There are eighteen full-fledged administrative 
departments, besides the Bureau of Statistics, the Civil 
Service Commission, the Board of City Record, etc. 

( / ) The [Mayor 

There is probably no other public official in the 
country, except the President of the United States, who 
has so important and powerful a position as the mayor 
of New York. The mayor is elected in Novem- 
ber once in four years, beginning with 1897, and takes 
his office on the first of January following. A mayor 
cannot be elected for a second term immediately follow- 



70 GOVERNMENT 

ing his first term. The mayor's salary is $i 5,000 a year, 
and he has the appointment of the men who really 
govern the city. He appoints directly the heads of 
sixteen of the eighteen departments; and indirectly the 
head of another department, the Board of Education, is 
appointed by him. The mayor also appoints the judges 
of Special Sessions and the city magistrates. He appoints 
the members of the four school boards, the school in- 
spectors, the civil service commissioners, the commis- 
sioners of accounts, the president of the Board of Public Im- 
provements, the chamberlain, the commissioner of jurors 
for Manhattan and the Bronx, the marshals, the inspectors 
and sealers of weights and measures, the commissioners 
and chief of the Bureau of Statistics and some of the 
art commissioners. He appoints about seventy officers 
with salaries from $5, 000 to $ 1 5, 000 a year, besides many 
with less and a few with none. The mayor and his 
appointees make a majority of the Board of Estimate and 
Apportionment and the Board of Public Improvements. 
Besides this, the mayor has an effective veto power over 
the acts of the Municipal Assembly. The chief limitation 
upon his power is in the matter of removal from office. 
During the first six months of the mayor's four years' 
term, he is at liberty to remove any of these officers ap- 
pointed by himself or former mayors, except judicial and 
school officers. After the six months, however, he cannot 
remove officers before the expiration of their terms except 
for causes which would be deemed sufficient in a court 
of law. The mayor is charged with seeing to the execu- 
tion of the laws and ordinances and the general super- 
vision over the government of the city. He is required 
to send a message to the Municipal Assembly at least 



THE CITT 7 i 



once a year and makes such recommendations as may 
seem necessary. In case of the mayor's death, absence or 
disability, the president of the council succeeds to his 
duties. The Governor of the State may remove the 
mayor of New York City for legal cause, that is, for a 
positive violation or neglect of duty capable of being 
proved to the satisfaction of the courts. 

(2) The (Municipal Civil Service Commission 

More than 30,000 public officers and employees are 
required to carry on the vast amount of business and 
supervision undertaken by the city. The necessity of 
merit and fitness in public officials and employees led to 
the enactment of the civil service law of 1883, and the 
adoption of the civil service clause in the State Constitu- 
tion of 1894, which requires that appointments in the 
public service shall be made on the basis of merit and 
fitness, determined, so far as possible, by competitive 
examinations. The State Legislature enacts the general 
laws for carrying out the provisions of the constitution. 
In New York City, as well as in other cities, there is a 
civil service commission composed of three or more 
members appointed by the mayor. It is the duty of this 
commission to classify the offices and employments in 
the city's civil service, to provide for examinations of 
applicants for appointment and to make rules governing 
appointments and promotions. No person appointed in 
violation of the civil service law and the rules of the 
commission can draw his pay from the public treasury. 
Policemen are subject to special civil service regulations 
provided by officers of the Police Department. 



ft GOVERNMENT 



( j ) Bureau of Municipal Statistics 

The City of New York is so large and carries on so 
many lines of work that it is no easy matter, even for 
the mayor himself, to keep track of all the city's busi- 
ness. Of course it is much more difficult for the private 
citizen to do so. In order to collect the most interesting 
facts concerning the city and its work and to put them 
into form for the convenient use of all citizens, the Bureau 
of Statistics for Greater New York has been established. 
The work of the bureau is outlined by a commission of 
statisticians appointed by the mayor, and carried on by 
the chief of the Bureau and his assistants. Every year 
a volume is to be published called {Municipal Statistics 
of the City of New York. The annual expenses of the 
bureau are limited to $10,000, unless the Board of 
Estimate and Apportionment and the Municipal Assemby 
shall provide otherwise. 

( 4 ) Board of City Record 

The mayor, corporation counsel and controller con- 
stitute a board to attend to the publication of the City 
Record, the official paper of the city, issued every day 
in the year, except Sundays and holidays. The board, 
once a year, lets a contract for the printing. The board 
appoints a supervisor and assistants to have immediate 
charge of the publication. In the City Record are 
published from day to day reports of city officers, pro- 
ceedings of the Municipal Assembly and the various 
boards, public notices and advertisements, and public 
records of many kinds. Once a year, in January, the com- 
plete list of the city's officers is published. The super- 



THE CITY 



visor of the City Record is required, also, to arrange and 
publish lists of registered voters within a few days after 
each registration is completed. Copies of the City 
Record are furnished free to newspapers, public libraries 
and city officials, and sold to other persons on applica- 
tion at the City Hall. 

( 5 ) The Commissioners of ^Accounts 

There are two Commissioners of Accounts appoint- 
ed and removed by the mayor at his pleasure. They 
receive salaries of $5,000 a year, and are required to 
examine carefully once in every three months the accounts 
of the controller and the chamberlain as well as of the 
departments reporting to the controller. Besides this 
quarterly examination, the Commissioners may make 
special examinations into the accounts of any public 
officer or department at any time either of their own 
accord or at the request of the mayor. Reports of these 
special investigations must be made to the mayor and to 
the Municipal Assembly. The Commissioners have 
power, while making their examinations, to compel the 
attendance of witnesses and to examine them under 
oath. 

( 6 ) 'Department of Finance 

The Controller has immediate charge of the fi- 
nances of the city. He is elected by the people for a term 
of four years, and receives a salary of $10,000 a year. 
The Controller issues the stocks and bonds of the city, 
keeps a record of them and draws warrants on the 
treasury for the payment of public moneys. He certifies 
contracts and reports weekly, to the heads of depart- 
ments, the amounts of their appropriations still unex- 



74 GOVERNMENT 



Dended. The Controller also publishes reports of the 
city's finances from time to time. He is a member of 
the board of estimate and apportionment, the board of 
public improvements, the sinking fund commission and 
the board of city record. He appoints a deputy and 
subordinate officers in the finance department. It is his 
duty to check fraud and see that the laws governing 
the receipt and expenditure of the city's money are 
strictly enforced. The Controller may be removed by 
the governor of the State for legal cause. There are 
five bureaus of the department of finance, as follows 
all but the last being under the controller's supervision. 

a A bureau for the collection of revenue and the 
management of the city's markets, under an officer 
called "the collector of city revenue and the superintend- 
ent of markets." 

b A bureau for the collection of taxes, under the 
" receiver of taxes." 

c A bureau for the collection of assessments, and de^ 
linquent taxes, assessments and water rents, under the 
"collector of assessments and arrears." 

d An auditing bureau, to audit, revise and settle all 
accounts with which the city is concerned, under "audit- 
ors of accounts." 

e A bureau for the reception and safe keeping of the 
city's money, and for paying it out on the controller's 
warrant, under the "chamberlain." The Chamberlain 
is appointed by the mayor, and receives a salary of 
of $12,000 a year. He is county treasurer by virtue of 
his office, and is required to give bonds for $300,000. 



THE CITY 75 



The Board of Estimate and Apportionment nas 
already been described. It is, so to speak, the legislative 
body of the finance department. The Sinking Fund of 
the city, which is made up of funds set apart for the pay- 
ment of the principal and the interest on the city debt, 
is in charge of a Board of Commissioners of the Sinking 
Fund composed of the mayor, the controller, the chamber- 
lain, the president of the council and the chairman of the 
finance committee of the board of aldermen. These 
commissioners have general charge of leasing city 
property, except parks, docks, piers and land under 
water, for periods not exceeding ten years. The reve- 
nues from the city's water works, docks, ferries, markets, 
houses and lands and from some other sources are paid 
into the sinking fund, and the moneys thus accumulated 
are used in paying off the interest on the city debt and 
the city debt itself when it falls due. The surplus on 
hand at any one time is, for the most part, invested in 
bonds and stocks issued by the city, and these draw in- 
terest from the city treasury the same as if held by 
private individuals. The debt of the city, unless incurred 
for water supply, is limited by the constitution of the 
State to ten per cent of the assessed value of taxable 
real estate within the city limits. But in reckoning the 
amount of the city's debt, the assets of the sinking fund 
are subtracted from the total. The amount of money 
borrowed on revenue bonds from year to year to pay 
current expenses up to the month of October, when the 
taxes begin to be collected, is also subtracted from the 
total debt. The net debt of New York City is now 
about $200,000,000. 

i 



76 ' GOVERNMENT 



(7) Department of Taxes and Assessments 

The money needed to run the city government is, 
for the most part, raised by taxes levied on real and per- 
sonal property within the city. It is the theory of the law 
that every person shall pay taxes in accordance with the 
amount of property he possesses. For this reason it is 
necessary that property should be listed and its value 
estimated. This general work is entrusted to a city 
department with a board of taxes and assessments at its 
head. This board is composed of a president appointed 
for a term of six years, and four other members, appointed 
for terms of four years, one of them going out of office 
every year. The president of the board receives a salary 
of $8, 000 a year, and the other members $6,000 each. 
The board appoints not more than forty deputy tax com- 
missioners, whose duty it is to examine and assess all real 
estate in the city once a year. The deputies also assess 
personal property. Persons who think their property 
has been assessed too high may apply to the board for 
reduction of the assessment in the case of real estate, and 
in the case of personal property may reduce the assess- 
ment themselves by a sworn statement of the value of their 
movable goods, including everything but real estate. 
Certain kinds of real estate, such as churches, schools, 
charitable institutions, etc., are exempted from taxation, 
on the ground that they are used for purposes, specially 
conducive to the general welfare. City, State and 
United States property, also is not taxed. The assessed 
value of taxable real estate in this city is about twenty- 
four hundred millions of dollars, and the personal prop- 
erty is assessed at about four hundred millions. The 



THE CITY 77 



tax-rate is the proportion of every $100 of property that 
a person must pay to the city for taxes. Thus if the 
tax-rate is 2.10, every property owner must pay §2.10 
in taxes for every §100 worth of his property on the list. 
Local improvements, such as grading, paving, and sewer- 
ing a street for the first time, are generally paid for by 
special assessments levied upon the houses and lands 
adjoining or benefitted by the improvement. The mayor 
appoints five assessors to make these assessments. The 
city has power to take land from private persons for 
streets and other public uses, on certain conditions, one 
of which is the payment of its estimated value to the 
owners. The city may also seize houses and lands and 
sell them if the owners do not pay the taxes, assessments 
and water rents charged against the real estate. 

(8) Law Department 

The city has so much business and the laws govern- 
ing its action are so numerous and so complex, that it 
has to have a large number of lawyers to advise its officers 
and conduct its proceedings. All of the city's law busi- 
ness is under the supervision of the Corporation Counsel. 
He is appointed by the mayor for a term of four years, 
receives a yearly salary of $15,000, and appoints all of his 
subordinates and removes them at pleasure. Under the 
Corporation Counsel are the several bureaus of the law 
department, which are the 

Bureau of street openings, 

Bureau for the recovery of penalties for the violation 
of city ordinances, and 

Bureau for collection of arrears of personal taxes. 
Other bureaus may be established by the Corporation 



78 GOVERNMENT 



Counsel. Every officer of the city is required to get his 
legal advice from the law department. 

(9) Police "Department 

In a great city like New York, where so many 
people are crowded together and there is so much valu- 
able property accumulated, it is necessary to have a large 
body of trained men whose business is to keep order in 
the streets, protect people from injury, catch criminals, 
enforce the laws and give information to travellers. All 
this is done by New York City's army of about 7,500 
policemen. The head of the Police Department is a board 
of four police commissioners, no more than two of 
whom may be members of the same political party. 
The commissioners are appointed by the mayor for 
terms of four years, and one of them goes out of office 
every year. They each receive a salary of $5,000 a year. 
The Police Board has charge of the entire police force, 
and appoints the chief of police, the deputy chiefs, the 
inspectors, the sergeants, the roundsmen, the detective 
sergeants, the doormen and the patrolmen, who to- 
gether make up the force. Police officers cannot be 
removed except for violation of law, neglect of duty or 
positive inefficiency. They are appointed in accordance 
with special civil service regulations. Patrolmen receive 
salaries of $1,400 after a few years' service, and officers of 
higher rank get larger salaries. There is a police pension 
fund out of which pensions are paid to the widows and 
orphans of officers killed in the service and to disabled 
and retired officers injured in the service or having served 
a long period of years. A number of policemen are 
detailed to serve the board of health and others to serve 



THE CITY 79 



the park board and the commissioner of bridges. In the 
Police Department proper there is the Detective Bureau 
whose business is to ferret out mysterious crimes and 
catch wiley criminals. In the Detective Bureau is kept a 
collection of photographs known as the "Rogues' Gal- 
lery." Under the Police Board, also, is the Bureau of 
Elections which has to appoint election officers, hire 
polling places, prepare ballots, ballot-boxes, etc., and 
attend to the details of holding the public elections. 
Police duty at the polls and the investigation of alleged 
violations of the election law are attended to by State 
officers. Police officers have the power to arrest while 
on duty, but it is their especial business to disperse 
disorderly crowds, prevent fighting and disorder, help 
people across crowded streets, give information, etc., 
without resorting to arrest except in cases of necessity. 

(10) 'Department of Correction 

This department is under the control of a Commis- 
sioner of Correction, appointed by the mayor for a term 
of six years and receiving an annual salary of $7,500. 
This commissioner has charge of the workhouse, the 
penitentiary and other institutions of the city for the 
care and custody of criminals and misdemeanants. 
Persons convicted of vagrancy, disorderly conduct or 
public intoxication may be sent to the workhouse. 
The Commissioner of Correction is required to find out 
whether such persons have been convicted for similar 
offenses during the preceding two years. If they have, 
theirterm of confinement must be extended in accordance 
with the number of times they have been sentenced; but 
the term cannot exceed six months in any one case, and 



8o GOVERNMENT 



they may in certain cases be discharged before their 
term is up, on the order of the city magistrate who last 
committed them to the workhouse. The commissioner 
may transfer prisoners from the workhouse to the peni- 
tentiary, the city prison, or other institutions under his 
care. 

( ; / ) 'Department of ^Public Charities 

The head of this department is the board of public 
charities, which consists of three commissioners ap- 
pointed by the mayor for terms of six years, one 
retiring every second year. One commissioner 

has jurisdiction in the boroughs of Manhattan and 
the Bronx, a second one has jurisdiction in Brooklyn and 
Queens, and the third has charge of public charities in 
Richmond. Each of the first two receives a salary of 
$7,500 a year, the third gets only $2,500. The com- 
missioners have charge of most of the city's asylums, 
hospitals, and almshouses in the several boroughs, as well 
as the "potter's fields." They have general supervision 
over the city relief of the poor. Each commissioner 
may establish schools for the training of children and 
other persons in the institutions under his supervision. 

( 12 ) Department of Health 

The public health of the city is looked after by the 
Board of Health and its subordinates. The board con- 
sists of the president of the police board, the health officer 
of the port, and three commissioners appointed by the 
mayor for terms of six years, one retiring every second 
year. Two of the commissioners must be physicians of 
ten years' standing, and the one who is not a physician 
is president of the Board of Health. The president 



THE CITY 8 1 



receives a salary of $7, 500 a year, and the other com- 
missioners, $6,000 each. The Board of Health has charge 
of the public hospitals which are for the care of per- 
sons sick with contagious diseases. The Board issues 
the sanitary code, as already indicated, and has power to 
compel the removal of nuisances, the repair of houses, 
and the correction of all conditions which put the health 
of the people in danger. Rear tenement houses and 
other tenements may be condemned by the board of 
health as unfit for human habitation, and in such cases 
the people have to move out of the condemned houses. 
There are in the Health Department two important 
bureaus, as follows : — 

a The Sanitary Bureau under the " Sanitary Superin- 
tendent," who has general supervision over the health 
inspectors and the police detailed to serve in the Health 
Department. 

b The Bureau of Vital Statistics under the "Registrar 
of Records," whose duty it is, with the help of his 
assistants, to keep a record of all births, marriages and 
deaths within the city which are reported to him. 

There is a health pension fund for the support of 
disabled officers and employees, who have been in the 
public service twenty years or more. 

( 13 ) Fire Department 

At the head of this department is the Fire Commis- 
sioner, appointed for six years, and receiving a salary of 
$7,500 a year. He appoints a deputy who has his office 
in the borough of Brooklyn. Under the control of the 
commissioner are the buildings and apparatus of the 



82 GOVERNMENT 



department, and the force of firemen. There are three 
principal bureaus in the department, as follows: — 

a Bureau for preventing and extinguishing fires and 
for the protection of property from water used at fires. 
This is under the control of an officer called the "Chief 
of Department." 

b Bureau in charge of the execution of the laws 
relating to storage, sale and use of combustible materi- 
als, such as powder, oil, etc. This is under the "Inspec- 
tor of Combustibles." 

c Bureau for the investigation of the origin and 
cause of fires, under the " Fire Marshals." 

Every year there are several thousand fires in the 
city, and it is by the vigilance of the Fire Department, 
with its army of trained men, that greater losses of life 
and property are prevented. The insurance companies 
maintain the " fire patrol" which hurries to every fire 
and is ready to help the Fire Department whenever 
needed. Here we have an example of good private control 
over government. The interests of the insurance com- 
panies lead them to compel the city authorities to main- 
tain an efficient Fire Department. The members of the 
fire force are arranged in several ranks and grades: chief, 
deputy chiefs, battalion chiefs, captains or foremen, 
lieutenants or assistant foremen, engineers and four 
grades of firemen. The ordinary fireman receives a 
salary of $800 the first year, which is increased to $1,400 
after three years of service. There is a relief fund out of 
which pensions are paid to disabled and retired firemen 
and to widows, orphans or dependent parents of firemen 
who have lost their lives in the service of the city. There 



THE CITY 83 



is also a life insurance fund, out of which $1,000 will be 
paid to the widow or legal representative of any fireman 
who has, up to the time of his death, made his regular 
contribution to the fund. 

(14) Department of Buildings 

Every year there are constructed in New York new 
buildings whose cost is about equal to the total assessed 
valuation of such places as Jersey City and St. Paul, 
Minnesota, or nearly $100,000,000. The plans for all 
these new buildings and for any extensive alterations of 
old buildings must be approved by the Department of 
Buildings before the work is allowed to go on. At the 
head of this department are three commissioners, ap- 
pointed by the mayor for terms of six years, one going 
out of office every second year. The mayor names the 
president of the Board. One commissioner has jurisidic- 
tion in the boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx, an- 
other in Brooklyn, and the third in Richmond and Queens. 
The first two receive a salary of $7,000 a year each, 
while the last gets only $3,500. Each is required to en- 
force the laws and ordinances applying to the construc- 
tion of buildings within the borough or boroughs under his 
jurisdiction. But the Board of Commissioners may adopt 
general rules for all the boroughs and may hear appeals 
from the decisions of the commissioner for Brooklyn 
or the commissioner for Richmond and Queens. Appeals 
from decisions of the commissioner for Manhattan and the 
Bronx are taken to a specially created Board of Exam- 
iners. It is in the power of the Municipal Assembly to 
enact and revise a Building Code, which must be in ac« 



U GOVERNMENT 



cordance with the general building laws of the State. 

( 75 ) Board of ^Public Improvements, and the Six Subor- 
dinate Departments 

The composition and powers of the Board of Public 
Improvements have already been briefly described. The 
President of the Board is appointed by the mayor for a 
term of six years, and receives $8,000 a year. He may 
appoint a vice-president of the Board, and in case of 
a disagreement between any of the departments he may 
decide the dispute subject to the ruling of the Board. He 
may also assign any special public work not described 
in the charter to one or more of the six departments with 
which the Board has to do. These are the departments 
of Water Supply, Sewers, Highways, Bridges, Street 
Cleaning, and Public Buildings, Lighting and Supplies. 
At the head of each of these departments is a single com- 
missioner, appointed by the mayor for a term of six 
years, and receiving an annual salary of $7,500. Each 
commissioner is given the sole executive power of his 
department, and is authorized to appoint one or more 
deputies. 

a Department of Water Supply. The Commissioner 
of Water Supply has charge of the water works for 
collection, storage and distribution. He is required to 
keep the water pure and provide means for getting it to 
the people. He also has charge of water meters and the 
collection of water rents. 

b Department of Sewers. The Commissioner of 
Sewers has charge of the drainage of the city, including 
carrying off the water used in homes and for flushing 
the streets, as well as all liquid wastes of the city, 



?#£ CITT %% 



c Department of Highways, The Commissioner of 
Highways has charge of the making of streets, roads and 
sidewalks and their care. This includes paving and the 
granting of licenses for street vaults. And the pavements 
cannot be opened for any purpose, either by city depart- 
ments or private companies, without a permit from this 
commissioner. He also has control of the laying of sur- 
face railroad tracks and the filling in of sunken lots. 

d Department of Bridges. The Commissioner of 
Bridges has charge of the New York and Brooklyn 
Bridge, including the operation of the bridge cars and the 
collection of fares, and also ofall other bridges, not included 
in the public parks, which may at any time be built or 
maintained by the city. The new East River Bridge, 
recently begun, is, however, exempt from his control. 

e ^Department of Street Cleaning. The Street Clean- 
ing Commissioner has charge of sweeping the streets, 
the removal of ashes, street sweepings, garbage and other 
light refuse and rubbish and the removal of snow and ice 
from the principal thoroughfares and as many other 
streets as practicable. This commissioner also has 
charge of granting permits to builders to use the streets, 
and of removing trucks, boxes and other incumbrances 
from the streets. Under him is a body of several thou- 
sand men: sweepers, drivers, inspectors, foremen, etc. 
The city is divided into districts, each of which is in 
charge of a superintendent. Members of the Street Clean- 
ing force wear uniforms, and, like the policemen and the 
firemen, are exempt from military and jury duty. The 
Department of Street Cleaning has no jurisdiction over 
roadways in public parks or over docks, wharves and 
piers. 



86 GOVERNMENT 

/ 'Department of 'Public 'Buildings, Lighting and 
Supplies. The commissioner at the head of this depart- 
ment supervises the erection, repair and keeping of all 
the public buildings except those in charge of the depart- 
ments of charities, correction, fire, police and education. 
He attends to the care and cleaning of offices leased or 
occupied by the city. He has charge of the location and 
management of public baths and closets. He makes 
contracts for lighting the streets and public places, in- 
spects gas and electricity used for light, heat and power, 
and supervises the laying of electric wires, gas pipes, 
steam pipes and pneumatic tubes. Finally this com- 
missioner is required to purchase for the use of all the 
city departments, the fuel, furniture, books and other 
supplies that are needed by them. 

(16) Department of Docks and Ferries. 

The head of this department is the Board of 
Docks, composed of three commissioners appointed by 
the mayor for a term of six years, one commissioner 
retiring every second year. The board chooses its own 
president who receives a salary of $6,000 a year, while 
the other commissioners receive $3, 000 each. The Board 
of Docks has general charge of the whole water front of 
the city, and builds, repairs, regulates and leases the 
the public wharves and piers. All the ferry franchises be- 
tween Manhattan Island and adjoining islands and the 
mainland belong to the City of New York, and are under 
the supervision of the Board of Docks. The revenues 
from leasing the docks and ferriers amount to between 
$2,000,000 and $3,000,000 a year, and are paid into the 
sinking fund. The expenses of the Dock Department, 



THE C ITT 87 



not only for building new wharves and piers and pur- 
chasing sections of the water front which still belong to 
private persons, but also for paying the regular salaries of 
officers and employees and other current charges are 
provided for-by the issue of bonds with the approval of 
the sinking fund commission. This latter body has 
some power of supervision ovcrthe Department of Docks 
and its approval is required before the Dock Board can 
put into execution any plans for improving the water 
front. The Dock Board has power to set aside piers on 
the North and East Rivers for the use of the people as 
recreation piers. Two such piers were opened in 1897. 
The water front is divided into districts over each 
of which is set a dock master whose duty is to regulate 
the use of the wharves, ships and piers and collect the 
wharfage fees. 

(77) 'Department of Parks 

This department is in charge of the Park Board 
which consists of three commissioners appointed for each 
section by the mayor for a term of six years, one of the 
commissioners going out of office every second year. 
The mayor indicates which commissioner shall be pres- 
ident of the board. One has charge of the parks in 
Manhattan and Richmond; another, of the parks in the 
Bronx; and the third, of the parks in Brooklyn and 
Queens. The Park Board adopts general ordinances to 
govern the parks of the city, and the several commis- 
sioners care for the parks themselves and for buildings 
in the parks such as the Aquarium, the Metropolitan 
Museum of Art, the American Museum of Natural His- 
tory, the New York Botanical Garden, etc. In connec- 



§§ GOVERNMENT 



tion with the Park Department there is an art commis- 
sion which must approve of the design and proposed 
location of any work of art before it can be purchased or 
accepted by the city. The commission is composed of 
the mayor, the presidents of the Metropolitan Museum of 
Art, the New York Public Library and the Brooklyn 
Institute of Arts and Sciences, together with six other 
persons appointed by the mayor from a list of not less 
than eighteen names submitted by the Fine Arts Federa- 
tion of New York. 

( 1 8) department of Education 

The schools of New York City are under the control 
of School Boards and a Board of Education. There are 
four School Boards, one for the boroughs of Manhattan 
and the Bronx, with twenty-one members; one for the 
borough of Brooklyn, with forty-five members; and one 
for each of the boroughs of Queens and Richmond, with 
nine members. The members of all the School Boards 
are appointed by the mayor for terms of three years, one- 
third of each board being appointed every year. The 
Board of Education for the whole city is composed of the 
chairmen of the four School Boards together with ten 
delegates elected by the School Board of Manhattan and 
the Bronx and five delegates elected by the School 
Board of Brooklyn (nineteen members). Members of 
the School Boards and of the Board of Education 
receive no pay for their services. 

The Board of Education prepares the school budg- 
et from the estimates of the School Boards, and sub- 
mits it to the Board of Estimate and Apportionment. 
The moneys raised for school purposes are divided into 



THE CITY 89 



the general fund and the special fund. The general 
fund is apportioned to the several School Boards and 
used for the payment of salaries chiefly. The special 
fund is controlled by the Board of Education, and is used 
mainly for the purchase of school sites, for the care and 
repair of school buildings and for the purchase of sup- 
plies. The Board of Education, besides having quite 
extended powers of regulation over the schools and school 
property of the city, is required to appoint a superintend- 
ent of school buildings, a superintendent of supplies, a 
city superintendent of schools, and some less important 
officers. The Board of Education may prescribe the mini- 
mum requirements for qualification to teach in the schools 
of the city. 

The Superintendent of School Buildings, who 
must be an architect of experience, is required to 
examine and approve all plans for the erection or 
extensive alteration of school buildings throughout all the 
boroughs. He also nominates janitors for the schools, 
the appointments to be made by the several School 
Boards. 
* The Superintendent of Supplies has charge of 
the purchase, and distribution, on the order of the School 
Boards, of all books, apparatus, stationery and other 
supplies for the schools. 

The City Superintendent of Schools has power 
to visit and examine any or all of the public schools 
in the city, but he has no power of actual interference 
in their management. He is, however, required to 
submit an annual report of the schools to the Board of 
Education, and may at any time call the borough superin- 
tendents and associate superintendents together for con- 



90 GOVERNMENT 



sulation or demand reports from them. He is charged, 
also, with the licensing of all teachers in all the boroughs 
of the city. Examinations for licenses are conducted by 
a board of five examiners of which he is a member. 

The School Boards of the several boroughs have the 
power to regulate the schools within their jurisdiction, to 
select sites for new school buildings, to fix the salaries of 
teachers and school officers, to establish high schools, 
evening schools, kindergartens, etc., and to appoint the 
borough superintendents and associate superintendents, 
and the teachers of all grades, upon the nomination of 
the boards of superintendents. 

The Borough Superintendent and his Associates 
form a Board of Superintendents under each School 
Board for the inspection of all things relating to the 
schools. They report the results of their examination 
to the School Board and also to the city superintendent. 
In the borough of Brooklyn teachers may be appointed 
by the School Board without their approval. 

It is the purpose of the public schools to give 
the children of all classes an opportunity to prepare 
themselves for the independent pursuits of manhood and 
womanhood. The one great object of the public schools 
is to train the children for good citizenship both in matters 
political and in matters personal and social, Reading, 
writing, arithmetic and all the other studies of the school 
course are simply means to this end. The education of 
boys and girls is of no value to the public unless it devel- 
ops in them a strong, upright and unselfish character, 
and trains them in the daily performance of their duties 
toward their fellows and their government. 



THE CITY oi 



In the early years of our nation, before the general in- 
troduction of machinery and the consequent industrial and 
social evolution, the children were trained in their life work 
by their parents on the farm, in the little shops and at home. 
Two or three months of schooling each year sufficed to com- 
plete the child's education. Those conditions no longer 
exist. The people have not yet provided adequate means 
to satisfy the demands of the new conditions. Though 
millions of dollars are spent every year by boards of 
education, much more must be spent. The school build- 
ings in the cities of the United States, which are now 
occupied by the children five or six hours a day, ten 
months of the year, must be open for the comfort, 
pleasure and moral training of the children by means of 
play and useful occupations, fifteen hours a day, twelve 
months in the year. Under such conditions immoral 
games of the street will practically disappear. The 
school house will be the children's club house to 
which they will be welcome from early morning till bed 
time. There will be ample bathing arrangements and 
facilities for working in clay, wood, metals and other 
materials and for buying needed materials at low prices. 
The children will be encouraged to make and do useful 
things, and will be helped to develop through such means 
their own individuality. In these school houses of the 
future will be provided various means of education and 
entertainment for adults. The local unit of social life, the 
neighborhood, which has been so nearly destroyed in 
cities, will find a new center of life in the school house. 
Important steps in this direction have already been taken. 
The kindergarten and manual training are being intro- 
duced everywhere. Bathing facilities are furnished in the 
school houses of New York and Boston. Popular even- 
ing lectures for adults are given in connection with the 
schools in New York City and Chicago. 

The children will be taught to govern themselves. 
There will be not less of discipline, but it will be self- 



92 GOVERNMENT 



imposed. They will realize that lack of care of school 
books and the public property is an offence to each in- 
individual and that the welfare and happiness of each one 
is the true interest of all. Right ideals will be put into 
daily and constant practice. Upon the perfection of this 
kind of public instruction will depend in large measure 
the health, happiness and moral strength of the nation. 

CITY JUDICIARY 

4 The City Judiciary is composed of the civil and 
the criminal courts established by the charter. 

(;) Civil Courts 

The Civil Courts have jurisdiction in disputes where 
the offenses committed are not primarily against the 
public peace and the general welfare. Thus, suits for 
damages and actions to recover property or to try the 
the title to real estate are tried in the Civil Courts. There 
are in New York City two local courts of this character, 
the City Court and the Municipal Court. 

a The City Court has jurisdiction in cases where 
the amount of money involved does not exceed $2,000. 
There are six judges of the City Court chosen for terms 
of six years, two being elected every second year. The 
City Court's jurisdiction is confined to the boroughs of 
Manhattan and the Bronx and its judges are elected by 
the people of those two boroughs. 

b The Municipal Court is made up of twenty-one 
district courts, which have jurisdiction over minor civil 
cases. The city is divided into twenty-one districts, 
two being in the Bronx, eleven in Manhattan, five in 
Brooklyn, three in Queens and two in Richmond. In 



THE CITY 93 



each of these districts a justice is elected every ten years, 
except that in the districts newly established the mayor 
appoints the justices for the first two years. All of the 
justices together form the Board of Justices of the Munici- 
pal Court. This board has power to choose a president 
and adopt rules of procedure for the courts. The board 
also assigns the justices to the various districts, but never 
outside of the borough in which they were elected. 

(2) Criminal Courts 

The local Criminal Courts try cases ynvolving 
breaches of the peace and the less important crimes and 
misdemeanors. There are in New York the Court of 
General Sessions, the Court of Special Sessions and the 
City Magistrates Courts, all of which have minor 
criminal jurisdiction. 

a The Court of General Sessions has jurisdiction 
within the boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx. This 
court is held by the Recorder, the City Judge and three 
Judges of General Sessions, all being elected for terms 
of fourteen years. The court is really a County Court 
and gets its name from the old English county courts 
which were held by justices of the peace sitting in 
" General Sessions." 

b The Courts of Special Sessions are two in number, 
one for the first division of the city which includes Man- 
hattan and the Bronx, and one for the second division 
which includes the three other boroughs. In each of the 
two courts there are five judges appointed by the mayor, 
for terms of ten years, one beingappointed every second 
year. In Special Sessions minor offenses, too important 
for the Police Courts, are tried without a jury. 



94 GOVERNMENT 

^The City Magistrate's Courts have absolute 
jurisdiction, without any appeal, over police offenses 
such as drunkenness, disorderly conduct, etc. In 
each of the two judicial divisions of the city there 
is a Board of City Magistrates which has power to 
adopt rules of procedure and assign magistrates to the 
various police courts. The City Magistrates are appoint- 
ed by the mayor for terms of ten years. In the first 
division there are twelve City Magistrates, and in the 
second division there are eleven. The City Magistrates' 
Courts deal summarily with persons arrested by the police 
for petty offenses and issue warrants for the arrest of 
persons against whom complaints are made. Thus 
these magistrates have great powers for good or evil 
over the liberties of the people. 

Juries 

In the higher courts a Jury is twelve men, chosen 
from among the people to hear the evidence ina case and 
decide by vote which side shall have the verdict. In 
justices' courts the Jury consists of six men. The Grand 
Jury may have as many as twenty-three men, the pre- 
sence of sixteen is necessary for transaction of business. 
A vote of twelve is necessary to the finding of an indict- 
ment. The Grand Jury does not render a verdict in 
any case, but decides whether or not there is sufficient 
ground for a trial. 

Many cases which must be tried by a judge and jury 
if either party demands it, are tried by the judges alone. 
This is less expensive and is more expeditious. 

Trials in the City Court are before a jury of twelve; 
in the Municipal Court the jury consists of six men but 
is dispensed with, unless one of the parties demands, it; 
in the Court of General Sessions the jury consists of 
twelve men ; cases in the Court of Special Sessions are 
tried before three judges, but without a jury ; there is no 
jury in the City Magistrate's Court. 



RIGHTS 95 



6 Rights and Duties of Citizens under the Central 
and Local Governments of the State 

It is around the standard of duty rather than around the standard of rights, that 
man must rally to win the rights of man.— Mazzini. 

Rights 
The Constitution of the State of New York, like aft 
the other State constitutions, guarantees certain rights 
and privileges to its citizens. Among these are: 

Right of trial by jury, when a person is charged 
with felony. In other cases the Legislature may 
enact such regulations as it deems proper. 
Privilege of the writ of habeas corpus, except in 
times of rebellion or invasion. The Governor 
has the power to declare military law, suspend- 
ing the writ. 
Freedom of religion. 
Freedom of speech and of the press, subject to the 

law of libel. 
Freedom to assemble peaceably and petition the 
government. 
All these, however, have been curtailed by law and 
11 police regulations." Citizens also have the right to 
vote at all public elections, provided they have the 
simple qualifications required by the constitution. These 
rights and others which are guaranteed by the constitu- 
tion of the State, cannot be abridged by the central or 
local governments. 

^Duties 

The Legislature and the local authorities can impose 
obligations on the citizens, such as the payment of taxes, 
the holding of office and service upon juries. The constitu- 
tion itself declares that the militia shall consist of all able- 
bodied men between the ages of eighteen and forty-five, 
except those who are exempted from militia duty by law. 
Of course, in all cases citizens are bound to co-operate 



96 GOVERNMENT 

with their fellow-citizens for the general welfare. Some- 
times bad laws are enacted either through the ignorance of 
the people's representatives or through their corruption 
or self interest. Citizens should try to have all bad and 
useless laws repealed. Above all, the people should not 
forget that "the government," so-called, can have no 
true interest of its own apart from the welfare of the 
citizens, and that, for this reason, the political life of the 
State will not often be any more honest or efficient than 
the every day life and action of the people. 



"Your rights are the others' duties; your duties are 
the others' rights. The right on either side translates 
into a duty on the other side. Whoever wants his own 
rights without being willing to do his corresponding 
duties in return, has the spirit of the thief. He wants to 
have the use of the laws, but he does not wish to 
keep them himself. 

"All this is very hard for many persons to learn. The 
truth is, that they are greedy about their rights ; they can 
scarcely see how they will get their rights, unless they 
assert them and claim them. They are unwilling to trust 
that if they do their part and look out for the rights of 
others, in other words, attend to their duties, others will 
give them their rights. They remind us of children who 
have been brought up with bad table manners. They 
have been accustomed to help themselves and to hurry 
and snatch in fear lest the others shall get more than their 
share. When these children first see a decent and civ- 
ilized table, where everyone waits his turn and each is 
quick to serve the other, they do not know how to 
behave. Nevertheless this is the only kind of table 
where everyone is sure to be supplied. So, precisely, in 
our democratic form of government; if we want our 
rights, the only way to get them is to see, as we do at 
the table, that every one else is served too. In other 
words, in our free and equal American government, for 
the very reason that we insist upon larger private rights 
for each individual, we have to say more about public 
duties and public spirit than anywhere else in the world." 
— Charles F. "Vole, Our Country, Vol. II, p. 144. 



THE GILL SCHOOL CITY 

POPULAR GOVERNMENT FOR CHILDREN 

I 

OBJECT OF THE SCHOOL CITY 

A MERICAN government is based on the theory that all 
men should have equal rights and equal political 
privileges. For this reason, in most of the States, every 
man who has acquired citizenship is given one vote at 
all public elections, without respect to his wisdom, his 
wealth, his race or his social standing. In order that 
American government shall be able to hold its own and do 
even better than ithas done, especially in the great cities, 
it is needful not only that every citizen should have the 
interest of his country, his State and his city or town at 
heart, but that he should also have a good knowledge of 
the duties of citizenship and the ways of performing 
them. 

The schools have been, heretofore, in most places, 
conducted on monarchical principles. The teacher, with- 
in the school-room and during school hours, 1-as been a 
king or queen, and the pupils have been subjects. With 
this condition of things, it is not strange that the children 
in the public schools have got very little actual instruc- 
tion and training in the practical problems of citizenship. 
It is not enough that the children should be told the 
story of Washington or of the great Civil W^ar, and have 
their patriotism inflamed by the display of the American 
3ag and the praise of American liberty. Such instruction 
might make armies of willing soldiers, if we needed 
them, but it does not always make intelligent voters 
who know how to govern a city or a State. 

It is the purpose of the Gill School City, an organiza- 
tion within the schools, to produce a better trained citi- 



98 THE GILL SCHOOL CI TY 

zenship. By modifying the monarchical organization of 
the schools and giving the children themselves a large 
share in their government along definite lines, it is 
believed that several desirable results may be obtained: 

First, through the conscious responsibility of a large 
measure of self-government, the children will learn to 
think and act for themselves and to co-operate with one 
another for the attainment of common ends. 

Second, the teachers will be relieved of much of 
the burden of school discipline, at the same time that the 
discipline will be improved by being made co-operative. 

TJiird, by means of definite organization along the 
lines of the local government under which they live, the 
children will be enabled to get both knowledge and 
practice of the duties which will be thrust upon them in 
later years as voters and office-holders. 

Fourth, it is believed that a great deal of good can be 
accomplished through the Gill School City by enlisting 
the active co-operation of the children with the public 
authorities for many purposes, such as keeping the 
streets tidy and improving the health conditions of the 
homes. 



II 



RELATION OF THE GILL SCHOOL CITY TO OTHER 
BRANCHES OF THE STATE GOVERNMENT 

"pVERY branch of government is limited in its powers. 
*-' Congress and the President of the United States can 
do only those things which are permitted to them by the 
National Constitution. The State Legislature and the 
Governor are controlled by both the National and the State 
Constitutions. And the city is, still further, subject to the 
laws of the Legislature. So each department of the city 
government is controlled to some extent by the Mayor 



ORGANIZATION IN RURAL DISTRICTS 99 

and the Council or Municipal Assembly. The Board of 
Education controls the superintendents, who, in turn, 
control the principals. The principals have supervision 
over the other teachers, and finally the teachers them- 
selves have a certain control over the children. It is not 
intended, by the Gill School City, to put irrevocable 
power into the hands of the children, but to lead them 
to co-operate with the teachers in the government of the 
school. The children are to be consulted in reference to 
many matters of interest to them, and also to have some 
things put into their hands for final decision. Thus, the 
Gill School City takes its place in the regular category of 
government, and by means of a popular organization at 
the base, the real spirit and force of government are 
brought home to the youthful citizens in a way that they 
can understand. It will be seen that the child ceases to 
be merely a prospective citizen, and becomes in fact a 
citizen. The School City is not a moot or play city, but, 
when undertaken with the right spirit and authority, is a 
branch of the government of the State. 



Ill 

ORGANIZATION OF THE GILL SCHOOL CITY 

In the Rural Districts 

TN the country schools, the organization of the children 
may take the name of the school town, the school 
village or the school district. The name is less import- 
ant than the substance. The country school may adopt 
the same form of government that is used in the city, 
but for obvious reasons it would probably be best to 
imitate the town or village government in a general 
way. The children might all meet once a week or once a 
month in town meeting, to pass by-laws in relation to 



ioo THE GILL SCHOOL CITY_ 

noxious weeds, stray dogs or poultry, the times and 
methods of playing games, rules of conduct, etc. There 
should be elected, at the town-meeting a 
Supervisor, 
"Town Clerk, 

Justice of the Peace and 
Constable. 

The Supervisor would be the manager of games, the 
president of meetings, and in all matters the leader and 
representative of the school. 

The Town Clerk would keep a record of by-laws and 
rules, give required notices of meetings, and draw up all 
documents on behalf of the school. > 

The Constable would be the policeman and would be 
requried to keep order and make arrests. 

The Justice of the Peace would try all offenders and 
settle disputes brought to him as a judge. 

If it were desired to organize the school on the plan 
of village government, the president and board of trus- 
tees would take the place of the town-meeting, except 
for purposes of election. 



In Cities 

HP HE organization of the School City in great centers of 
population should conform in outline to the munici- 
pal government there existing. Although cities have a 
form of government which is almost everywhere similar 
in outline, there is infinite variation in the details of city 
charters. It should be the policy of the school city to 
reflect the local form of city government, so far as that 
course will permit the necessary simplicity of organiza- 
tion for the purposes of the school. Every school city 
would, of course, choose a mayor and a city council. 
Probably as a rule it would be better to have a council 



SUFFRAGE I6t 



of a single chamber, even if the real city had a two- 
chambered council. This, however, could be left to the 
discretion of the teachers or the desires of the 'pupils. 
There should also be a judicial department consisting of 
one or more regular school city courts. In all cases, 
there would need to be branches of the executive depart- 
ment corresponding to the police and health departments 
of our cities. In many cases, there might be a separate 
street or school cleaning authority; and a junior officer 
or board of commissioners to take care of the school 
buildings and apparatus, or to give assistance to the 
poorer and weaker children, or to lay out and supervise 
the playground, might be appointed just as local condi- 
tions should demand. 

I SUFFRAGE IN THE SCHOOL CITY 

In those schools where the boys and girls are taught 
together, it would be practically necessary for the girls 
to have the same rights of voting as the boys have. 
Female suffrage among children cannot be denied. It 
might prove advantageous, however, to exclude from 
voting every boy or girl who failed to maintain a certain 
moderate standing in scholarship and good behavior. 
In a few months, after the establishment of the Gill 
School City, during which time it is best to conduct elec- 
tions in the easiest ways possible, where arrangements 
can be made for it, the actual balloting should be con- 
ducted according to the "Australian" or secret ballot 
system, with the names of all candidates on a single 
sheet of paper, and the election officers appointed from 
the representatives or friends of opposing candidates. 

2 NOMINATIONS FOR OFFICE 

It would, of course, be very undesirable for the 
children of a school city to become divided into political 



io2 THE GILL SCHOOL CITY 

parties along the lines of their father's parties. Still, 
some method should be provided for nominating candi- 
dates so that there would be a choice between two or 
more at an election. A feasible plan is for each 
grade or class to be organized as an election district 
for choosing one delegate each, to a school nominating 
convention. That there may generally be at least two 
candidates for each office, two delegates may be chosen 
from each district, one for one and the other for another 
convention. Each convention can then nominate a 
ticket. Or, if thought best to hold but one convention, 
there is nothing to prevent its making two or more 
nominations for each office. The teachers could act as 
primary election officers, at least for the first organiza- 
tion of the school city. The conventions would then 
meet and make nominations of candidates for each of the 
general elective offices. Nominations by petition should 
always be in order. These candidates would be voted 
for by the entire school, and if no one candidate for 
a particular office received a majority of all the votes 
cast, a new election would be held at which a plurality 
vote would elect. The members of the council should be 
chosen by grades or classes, on supposition that each 
grade or class stands for a ward of the city. The presi- 
dent of the council should be elected by the whole school 
and stand next in succession to the mayor. 

3 ELECTIONS 

All elections should be by some form of ballot, 
varying with the grade and age of the pupils. Children 
not yet able to write could be taught to vote with peb- 
bles or balls or some similar devices. In the highest 
grades the blanket ballot might be introduced. The 
counting of the votes would be by election districts, of 
course, and the method of balloting in any one district 
would be uniform. Teachers should keep a very close 



ELECTIOXS, COUXCIL, MAYOR 103 



watch over the sacredness of the ballot, and attempted 
fraud should be visited with the most humiliating punish- 
ment that the school would be willing to inflict, without 
fear or favor. Now is the time, if that time is ever to 
come, for each one of these Americans to be made to 
appreciate the sacredness of the ballot, and the shame 
and enormity of that crime which tampers with it. 
Frequent elections would tend to keep up an interest in 
the government, and would exercise the children's ability 
to observe and discriminate in reference to the perform- 
ance of duties. 

4 THE COUNCIL 

The legislative body of the school city should have 
power to elect a clerk or secretary, to adopt by-laws and 
rules of conduct, to regulate the privileges and deport- 
ment of the scholars, to approve or disapprove any proj- 
ects for entertainments or other joint undertakings, 
when proposed by the teacher or the executive officers, 
and to appoint committees of investigation. It should 
be required of the council, before passing finally upon 
certain important measures, to submit them to a vote of 
the school. Health rules, police regulations, etc., should 
be passed by the council on the recommendation or 
subject to the approval of the executive officers in charge 
of those branches. However, in all possible cases, the 
council or the school should be able to override a veto 
by a two-thirds or three-fourths vote. 

5 THE MAYOR 

For election to the chief magistracy of the school 
city there may be some age and scholarship require- 
ment. The mayor might be chosen, more or less fre- 
quently, according to the temper of the school, and 



i64 THE GILL "SCHOOL C IT? 

should always have the chance of standing for re-elec- 
tion. Probably a term of one or two months would be 
a wise minimum and three or four months a wise 
maximum. The mayor would, of course, have 

power to appoint several officers. In small schools he 
would be the head of the police force, and in all schools 
he would have the powers of a magistrate for enforc- 
ing orders, ordering arrests, etc. The mayor would 
be the honorary head and representative of the school 
city on all public occasions and for the purpose of 
making complaints, presenting petitions, etc. The 
mayor would have power to remove subordinate officers 
for cause and subject to an appeal to the school city 
courts. Appointments, except in the case of the most 
responsible positions, should be made on the strength 
of the results of competitive tests or on the basis of 
general scholarship and character. There should be ap- 
pointed by the mayor a civil service board of three 
members to conduct physical and other examinations 
and to rate candidates. The boy who is strongest and 
can run the fastest would, other things being equal, 
make the best policeman. The mayor should have a 
suspensive veto power over the resolutions of the council. 

6 POLICE, HEALTH AND OTHER SPECIAL DEPARTMENTS 

If the mayor retain the direction of the police de- 
partment, he ought to associate with himself two others 
to give advice and check too hasty action. In any case, 
there should be a chief of police or chief constable, who 
would himself be a policeman, a sort of military com- 
mander. The office of policeman should be regarded 
as one of honor. It is the duty of a policeman to be 
kind, considerate and helpful, especially to little ones 
and those who are imposed upon. It has been found, 
many a time, that a boy who is prone to offend in a certain 
direction, if given the responsibility of preventing such 



COURTS io« 



offenses, is faithful in the performance of his duty. The 
correction of his fault is not less certain because of its 
being" entirely incidental. It might, indeed, be found 
advisable to organize a large part of the school for occa- 
sional military drill or for gymnastic exercises under the 
leadership of the chief of police. The health administra- 
tion should be in the hands of a board of three members, 
including a teacher, usually the head teacher. The health 
authorities would enforce cleanliness in the school, and 
propose rules of conduct to be submitted to the council or 
the whole school for approval. There should be, also, 
a school street cleaning department to work with the 
municipal authorities. 

7 THE COURTS 

There should be two courts, a police court and a 
city court. 

The Police Court would be held by a police judge 
appointed by the mayor and would try cases of a minor 
character, involving an ordinary breach of the school's 
peace. 

TJie City Court would be held by a judge elected 
by the whole school. All important offenses would be 
tried in this court, by a jury of six or twelve pupils, a 
two-thirds vote being necessary to convict. The judge 
would be the interpreter of the law, and at all times he 
might be required by any scholar to give an opinion of 
the meaning of the laws and rules of the school. The 
jury decides the facts in the case. In the olden times, 
the jury decided both the law and the facts. The judge 
presided at the trial and kept order. For educational 
purposes, this is better than that the jury should decide 
only in reference to the facts. Any citizen of the United 
States, on trial by a jury, in spite of the custom which 
has grown from gradual encroachments by the judges, 



io6 THE GILL SCHOOL CITF 



is in a position to demand that both the law and the 
facts shall be determined by the jury. For the School 
City, this point had better be fixed by the charter. 

8 THE CHARTER 

The charter of the School City should be a document 
drawn up and~ approved by the principal or board of 
teachers, providing for the form of the School City govern- 
ment and its mode of operation. This charter should be 
subject to amendment at stated periods, though it might 
be a good thing to submit the original charter, or any 
important amendments, to a vote of the school. The 
chief object of this series of suggestions in regard to the 
organization of the school city is to furnsh a general 
outline from which charters may be drawn up. 

There may be a series of charters. The first may 
grant to the pupils certain limited rights and duties. If 
at the end of a month or two the children have shewn 
that they appreciate these limited privileges of citizen- 
ship, they will be in a position to petition the principal 
and teachers for a charter granting other rights. In the 
same way a third and a fourth charter may follow. It 
is also possible, in case of the development of great 
excellence in government, that the school boards will 
listen favorably to petitions for larger rights and for more 
extended uses of the school houses and grounds than 
have heretofore been granted. 

While it may be convenient to introduce the Gill 
School City in its simplest form, and then from time to 
time add departments and improvements, a course may 
be pursued, so conservative as to deprive the work of 
the features necessary to enlist and retain the interest of 
the children. There is more danger from too great con- 
servatism on the part of the teachers, than from a com- 
plicated form of government that will give a large pro- 



AMENDMENTS TO THE CHARTER 107 



portion of the children something to do in connection 
with it. For one who is allowed to take part, the work 
is concrete and interesting, at least in proportion to his 
duties. What may seem to be a complicated form of 
government, on paper, is not necessarily so in practice, 
so far as each pupil is concerned. Voting is no trouble 
to the pupils. They would like to vote every day. It 
would be impracticable to hold elections in sufficiently 
rapid succession to satisfy their appetite for them. It 
may be well to note, also, that should the work seem 
complicated by a multiplicity of offices, it is not com- 
plicated thereby for any special child, for he (or she) 
would hold but one office at a time. This is not said to 
encourage complicated work, but to call attention to the 
fact, that the$ natural tendency is to give so little at first, 
and to go so slow that failure will be courted if not 
secured. Finally, it can be said with a good deal of cer- 
tainty, that the success or failure of the project, in each 
instance, will rest almost entirely with the teachers. On 
their wisdom, enthusiasm and perseverance, and not 
that of the children, does the whole thing rest. The 
children's interest and perseverance is a necessary ele- 
ment, but a good teacher can (easily command that for 
this work. 

9 AMENDMENTS TO THE CHARTER 

In general, the School City may be organized at 
first, in very simple form, with a city council, mayor, 
judge and police department as nearly as practicable, in 
imitation of the larger city in which the school is situ- 
ated. Other departments may be added in as rapid suc- 
cession as in the judgment of the principal may seem 
best. The power of amendment should therefore be 
provided, amendments to be submitted by the board of 
aldermen and, after one or two weeks' notice, to be voted 
upon by the citizens a majority to decide. All amend- 



o8 THE GILL SCHOOL CITY 



ments may lapse at the end of the school year, so that 
the following year the School City shall begin again in 
actual imitation of the larger city government or in the 
most simple form. But amendments which had been 
adopted the year before can of course be reenacted. In 
this way the children and teachers will have valuable 
experience in practical politics and will be able to test 
various measures of political reform that are before the 
public. 

IO IMPROVEMENTS IN GOVERNMENT 

The initiative, referendum, proportional representa- 
tion and primary reform may be introduced and will 
have important educational results. 

The Initiative is a provision that ten per cent of the 
voters may draw up a law or amendment to the charter 
and have it submitted to a general vote of all the citizens 
for adoption or rejection. This allows private citizens to 
initiate legislation instead of waiting upon the pleasure of 
the board of aldermen. 

The Referendum requires that all laws or ordinances 
enacted by the board of aldermen must be voted upon 
by the citizens and cannot be enforced unless approved 
by a majority vote. It is a popular veto on the city 
council (board of aldermen). 

Proportional representation is another valuable device 
to aid the people in giving expression to their will. 
It provides for electing the council on a general ticket 
for the city at large instead of by wards or classes, and 
gives each voter as many votes as there are candidates 
to be elected, which he may cumulate or distribute 
as he pleases. For instance, if there are twelve council- 
men to be elected, each voter will have twelve votes, 
which he can give to one candidate, or divide among the 
candidates as he may think best. There is a further pro- 



IMPRO VEMEXT IX GO VERXMENT i c 9 



vision that a voter may designate his second, third, etc., 
choice. By this means, a person's second choice may 
be elected if his vote cannot be utilized to elect his first 
choice. 

Primary reform may be introduced as is now pro- 
vided by the new law ot California which puts the 
nominations of candidates for office under the same rules 
as those which apply to the regular elections. In section 
two, (page 101) is offered a suggestion for primary re- 
form adapted to the School City. 

Should these improvements be introduced into the 
School City there should be provided a small library for 
reference. Primary reform is described in the report of 
the first conference of the National Primary Election 
League, to be procured from the secretary, Mr. R. M. 
Easley, Secretary of the Civic Federation, Chicago. The 
Initiative, the Referendum, and Proportional Repre- 
sentation are described in the volume "Proportional 
Representation," by J. R. Commons. Civil Service Reform 
and various other municipal reforms are discussed in the 
"Proceedings" of the National Conferences for Good 
City Government, to be procured from the Secretary, 
of the National Municipal League, Clinton Rogers Wood- 
ruff, Philadelphia, Pa. All these matters are treated of, 
from time to time, in Our Country, by the highest 
authorities on the respective subjects. 



— :the end: 



PATRIOTIC LEAGUE INFORMATION IN BRIEF 




THE FIRST OBJECT of the League is to induce public schools to teach children, 
especially the little ones, the principles and practice of unselfish citizenship. 

INSTRUCTION in those things which are necessary to intelligent citizenship, in- 
cluding a three years' course in History, Civil Government, Law, Economics, 
and the Duties and Practices of Good Citizenship, requiring about ten minutes' 
reading each day, is furnished free to all active members. 

AFTER EXAMINATION at the end of the three years' course, Members will grad- 
uate and receive diplomas. 

CHAPTERS of the Patriotic League can be organized in connection with, and will 
add to the value and interest of work carried on by religious, patriotic, educa- 
tional and social societies and schools. CHAPTER meetings can be held in con- 
nection with other meetings. Weekly meetings are advised but not required. 

MEMBERSHIP, Active and Associate, in chapters or separately, is open to men, wom- 
en and children, who adopt the principles of the League and pursue its teachings. 

ANNUAL FEE for Active Members is $1.50 ; in chapters often or more $1.00. Our 
Country is furnished free to Active Members. No fee for Associate Members. 

CONTRIBUTING MEMBERS constitute the Alpha Chapter and give funds for the 
extention of the League work. Life Members, give $100 or more; Promoters, 
$25, a year; Sustaining Members, $10; Reguler Members of the Alpha Chapter 
$5- 

THE BADGE of the LEAGUE is a little blue enameled silver star of the size and 
design of this drawing. It is made in the form of a scarf or stick pin, of 
a lapel button and of a bangle to hang from a link, the price being 35 
cents for each form. The wearing of the badge helps to make public 
opinion and is a valuable service to our cause. Celluloid badge 5 cents. 

CHARTERS, though not necessary to the work, will be issued to chapters of 19 
members or less for $1.50 ; for each additional 10 or less, $1. 

SOCIAL and POLITICAL REFORM through SCHOOL GOVERNMENT— "The 
Gill School City" is a democratic-republican form of school government devised 
by the Patriotic League to take the place of the ordinary monarchical form, so 
that Americans, while their characters and habits of life are being formed, may be 
trained to habitually perform the duties of cooperative and unselfish citizenship. 

BOOKS—" Our Country Series " of small books on citizenship which have appear- 
ed serially in Our Country are especially adapted for use of schools. They are 
neatly and substantially bound and make a valuable addition to one's library. 

OUR COUNTRY is the monthly magazine of the League containing all its required 
readings. It is furnished free to all Active Members. Associate Members will 
have to depend upon Active Members for their literature The required readings 
are prepared for young people of eighteen or twenty years and older. Experience 
shows that quite young boys and girls can be interested in and understand write 
ings intended for adults. It should not be expected that the young will take up 
this work with enthusiasm, unless older persons lead, and conslantly encourage 
and assist them. In the hands of earnest and patriotic teachers the lessons have 
proved a decided success in primary schools, as well as among adults. 

SUBSCRIPTION PRICE for Our Country is $2.00 a year, but is furnished to 
Active Members FREE. 

SAMPLE COPIES will be mailed on receipt often cents in silver or two-cent stamps. 

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION, application blanks, charters, etc., address the 
PATRIOTIC LEAGUE. Send at least enough 2-cent stamps to pay postage. 

ALL MAIL should be addressed: PATRIOTIC LEAGUE, P. O. Station O, N. Y. 



mm 



m£M£l 0F CONGRESS 



021 051 442 9 



